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THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
IN ENGLAND AND WALES 



PETER SANDIFORD 

M.Sc. (MANCHESTER), Ph.D. (COLUMBIA) 



TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 32 



PUBLISHED BY 

U^mt\\n& (UnlUgp, OInlumhia llnlttwHttg 

NEW YORK CITY 
1910 






Copyright, 1910, by Peter Sandiford 



©C1.A2G881)5 



y 



To 

MARY E. MACKIE 

this book is gratefully dedicated 



PREFACE 

The purpose of this study is to give a systematic and critical 
account of the training of teachers in England and Wales. The 
systems in vogue in Scotland and Ireland differ fundamentally 
from the English system and consequently fall outside the scope 
of this work. The study is the outcome of researches made dur- 
ing the past two years in the Departments of Elementary Educa- 
tion and of Educational Administration at Teachers College. To 
these researches have been added the practical knowledge and 
experience gained as a lecturer in the Education Department of 
the University of Manchester — a day training college recognized 
under the regulations of the English Board of Education. A 
brief account of the administration of education in England and 
Wales has been given to serve as a background for the work. In 
addition, the history of the subject from Elizabethan times has 
been traced. Since the government is assuming responsibility 
for the training of secondary school teachers, art teachers, 
teachers of domestic arts and other subjects, a chapter dealing 
with these aspects of the problem has been introduced. The main 
portion of the work is, however, devoted to the description of the 
training and service of elementary school teachers. 

This Contribution is the third of a series on similar topics, the 
other two of which are Farrington, "The Public Primary School 
System of France, with special reference to the training of teach- 
ers " ; and Kandel, " The Training of Elementary Teachers in 
Germany." 

I wish to express my indebtedness to Professor M. E. Sadler 
for many valuable suggestions on the historical aspects of the 
subject; to Mr. S. E. Maltby of Manchester University for se- 
curing information upon a series of questions submitted to him, 
difficult of access to students in America ; and to the corres- 
pondents of the training colleges and the secretaries of the nu- 
merous associations of teachers for their never-failing courtesy 
and kindness in forwarding catalogs and other documents de- 



vi Preface 

scriptive of the institutions with which they are connected. I 
wish to express my thanks to Professors Strayer, McMurry, 
Snedden and Monroe for reading the dissertation in manuscript. 
To Professor Strayer, I am also indebted for many helpful sug- 
gestions. 

P. S. 
New York, 1910 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION ' . . . MICHAEL E. SADLER xi 

CHAPTER I 
The Administration of Education in England and Wales 

Central Authorities. — Board of Education. — The President. — 
History of the Board. — The Committee of Council. — The Science 
and Art Department. — The Board of Education Act. — Organiza- 
tion of the Board. — Reports, Codes, Circulars, Regulations, Mem- 
oranda, Suggestions. — Inspection. — Inspectorial Divisions. — Powers 
of Inspectors. — Special Inquiries. — Consultative Committee. — Minor 
Central Authorities. — Home Office. — Local Government Board. — 
Board of Agriculture. — War Office. — Admiralty. — Charity Commis- 
sioners. — Central Authority for Scotland. — Central Authorities for 
Ireland i 

Local Authorities. — Administrative County. — County Boroughs. 
— Municipal Boroughs. — Urban Districts. — Local Areas. — The Coun- 
cil. — Education Committee. — Managers. — Powers and Duties of 
Local Authority. — School Attendance. — Supervision 20 

CHAPTER II 

History of the Training of Teachers 

Prior to 1839. — Mulcaster's " Positions." — Qualifications of early 
schoolmasters. — Lyly. — Coote. — Brinsley. — Hoole. — Society for the 
Promotion of Christian Knowledge.— The German Situation. — The 
Monitorial System. — Lancaster and Borough Road. — Dr. Bell and 
the National Society. — Kildare Place Society in Ireland. — Early 
teacher training in Scotland. — Stow. — Parliamentary Grants for 
training teachers 29 

From 1839 onwards. — Committee of Council. — Plans for a National 
Normal School. — Pupil-teachers. — Minutes of 1846. — Lowe's Revised 
Code. — Results of Revised Code. — Growth of Centre Classes. — Need 
for greater Academic Training. — Regulations for the Preliminary 
Education of Pupil-teachers. — Early Normal Schools. — Gray's Inn 
Road. — Battersea. — Borough Road. — Work of Dioce.san Boards and 
National Society. — Gibson's Report on Glasgow Normal Seminary. — 
Grants to Colleges on account of Queen's Scholars. — Curriculum 
of Early Nomial Schools. — Table of Early Normal Schools. — Training 



viii Contents 



Colleges for Women Secondary Teachers. — Day Training Colleges. — 
Recent Movements 42 

CHAPTER III 
Preliminary Education of Teachers 

Changing Ideals of Training. — Secondary Schools. — Pupil-teachers. 
— Bursars. — Student-teachers. — Training and Instruction of Pupil- 
teachers, Bursars, Student-teachers. — Pupil-teacher Centres. — Cur- 
riculum. — Government and Local Grants for Preliminary Education 
of Teachers. — Relative Advantages of Pupil-teacher System and the 
Bursar and Student-teacher Systems 56 

CHAPTER IV 
Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 

Definition of Training College. — Governing Body. — Distribution. 
— Classification. — Boarding and Lodging of the Students — Hostels. 
— Grants for College and Hostel Buildings. — Maintenance of Train- 
ing Colleges. Admission Requirements. — Form of Undertaking. — 
Social Status of Students. — Teaching Staff. — Classes of Students. — 
Two Year Students. — One Year Students. — Certificated Students. — 
Three Year Students. — Third Year Students. — Cost to Students. — 
Course of Study. — Alternative Schemes. — Comparison with Amer- 
ica. — Texts. — Time-table. — Criticism Lessons. — Practice Teaching. 
— The Ideal Scheme. — Demonstration Schools. — The Fielden Demon- 
stration School. — Certification of Students. — Student-life in the 
Colleges. — Athletics. — Typical Time-table. — Societies and Alumni 
Associations. — Question of Religion. — Courses for Teachers of Blind, 
Deaf and Defective Children. — Conclusion 65 

CHAPTER V 

Training of Teachers Other than Elementary 

Secondary Teachers. — History of Training Movement. — Diplomas. 
— Government Scheme. — Teachers of Domestic Subjects. — Curric- 
ulum. — Diplomas. — Teachers of Art. — Kindergarten Teachers. — 
Teachers of Educational Handwork. — Teachers of Physical Educa- 
tion. — Conclusion 94 

CHAPTER VI 

The Teacher in Service 

Types of Elementary Schools. — Classes of Teachers. — Powers and 
Duties of Teachers. — Appointment and Dismissal of Teachers. — 
Salaries of Teachers. — N. U. T. Scale of Salaries. — Typical Scales. — 



Contents ix 



Tables of Salaries of Head and other Teachers. — Salaries of Second- 
ary Teachers. — Supervision of Teachers. — Reading Circles. — Sum- 
mer and Sessional Courses for Teachers. — Teachers' Association and 
other Educational Organizations. — Activities. — Political and Legis- 
lative. — Legal Aid, Advice and Protection. — Economic Betterment. 
— Educational and Professional. — Insurance and Benevolent Work. 
— Tenure. — Information Bureau. — Appointments Bureau. — Social. 
— Publications Department. — The National Union of Teachers. . . . 104 

CHAPTER VII 

The Teacher as a Civil Servant 

Pensions for Teachers. — The Annuity. — The Superannuation 
Allowance. — The Disablement Allowance. — Suggested Pension 
Schemes for Secondary Teachers. — The Teachers' Register. — History 
of Register. — Work of Teachers' Associations on the Register, .... 131 

CHAPTER VIII 

Statistical Interpretation and Comparison; Summary and 
Conclusions 

Ntunber of Elementary Schools and Scholars. — Types and Sex of 
Teachers. — Statistics of Training Colleges. — Pupil-teacher System. — 
Secondary School Statistics. — Educational Finances. — American 
Statistics. — Comparison of English and American Systems of Train- 
ing Teachers. — Summary and Conclusions 139 

APPENDICES 

Appendix A. — English Course for Preliminary Education of Teach- 
ers 151 

Appendix B. — Diagram representing the various ways in which a 
person may proceed through the different stages 
of the Teaching Profession 152 

Appendix C. — Form of Undertaking for Resident Students 154 

Appendix D. — Annuity Tables 157 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 

INDEX i65 



INTRODUCTION 

This volume fills a gap in the list of books dealing with the 
administration of English education. No other work covers 
exactly the same ground or gives so complete an account of the 
present regulations for the professional training of teachers in 
England and Wales. For the information of readers not familiar 
with the existing forms of public control in English education, 
Dr. Sandiford puts in the forefront of his work a brief survey 
of the powers and duties of the central and local authorities 
which inspect and aid different types of school. He then throws 
his subject into historical perspective by a review of the stages 
of opinion and of administrative effort which have led up to 
the existing regulations for the training of teachers for their 
professional duties. In the following chapters he describes the 
present state of things in this part of the educational field 
and, from his own varied personal experience, compares the 
systems of training in England and America. A book dealing 
with this subject, though mainly descriptive, must also, if it is 
to be practically useful and stimulating, be in some measure 
critical and even controversial. In forecasting the future of the 
educational system of England and Wales and in discussing 
various questions of method and organisation upon which opinion 
is sharply divided, Dr. Sandiford therefore states his own view, 
but with a candour which will be welcomed by every reader and 
will be not least respected by those who have formed a different 
judgment as to the probable course of future policy. 

In one of Mr. J. M. Barrie's novels, the vigorous but blunt- 
minded heroine rocks her arms at a critical point in her history 
and cries : " It is so easy to make up one's mind." " It is easy 
to you that has just one mind," retorts Sentimental Tommy, 
" but if you had as many minds as I have — I " England suffers 
from the same trouble as Tommy. As to the relation between 
the State and the individual citizen and between the secular, 
bureaucratic organisation of the State and the varied religious 



xii Introduction 

traditions of the community, she has more minds than one. 
It is far from being to her discredit that she sees — or, to put 
the matter more accurately, feels rather than sees — the difificulty 
of the problems to which those relationships give rise. But her 
perception of the weight of argument which may be advanced 
in support of several possible solutions has greatly embarrassed 
her in the past, and still embarrasses her, in dealing with the 
question of national education. For that question, when it has 
to be dealt with in any thorough-going way, compels us to form 
a judgment as to the relative rights of the State and of the 
parents in determining the course of education which children 
shall receive, and as to the degree in which religious or secular 
influences should control the spirit of the instruction given in 
the schools. In determining national policy as to the professional 
training of teachers for the various types of school which make 
up the English system of national education, we are confronted 
with many of these questions in an acute form. Dr. Sandiford's 
chapters show how contorted has been the growth of the systems 
of training which have had to thrust their way upwards through 
this tough tangle of conflicting ideals. 

One thing is especially likely to be borne in upon the mind 
of the reader of these pages. He will note that English educa- 
tional ideals, and consequently English administrative regulations, 
for the training of teachers are now passing through a stormy 
time of change. What is written now may be in some important 
details obsolete a year hence. For some time change has followed 
change in bewildering succession. Public opinion has been deeply 
moved by the discussion of fundamental questions which lie at 
the base of all educational policy. In hardly any country in 
the world have administrative changes in the sphere of public 
education been more rapid than in England during the last eight 
years. To the student in Great Britain itself, and still more to 
the foreign observer, these changes have been profoundly inter- 
esting and at the same time the cause of serious perplexity. It 
is no exaggeration to say that there is probably no living man 
or woman in England or elsewhere who, if taken by surprise, 
could answer with accuracy all the questions of a searching ex- 
amination paper dealing, in a comprehensive way, with the 
present educational conditions and regulations in the different 



Introduction xiii 

parts of Great Britain and Ireland. This difficulty gives a 
measure of the value of the service which Dr. Sandiford has 
rendered by gathering together, so far as possible, the threads 
of the situation so far as they concern the training of teachers 
in England and Wales. 

In England, education was until quite lately divided into three 
virtually separate grades. Those grades were separated from 
one another by no clear-cut class division, but nevertheless by 
distinctions which roughly corresponded to three great sections 
in the community. A long history, almost unbroken from the 
Middle Ages, lay behind and explained this educational situa- 
tion. At all times it has been easier than is generally realised 
for boys (not for girls) of marked promise, if they had the 
good fortune to meet with a patron or to win a scholarship, 
to rise from one grade of education to another. l>ut the modern 
sense of unity in national education, and the conception of a 
great system of schools and colleges organised throughout under 
the supervision of the State were slov/ in making their way 
into the minds of English people. During the last twenty years 
this new idea of national education has been working like a 
ferment in English thought. It has produced an almost revolu- 
tionary change in public policy in regard to education. But it 
is far from having fully realised itself either in administration, 
or in the distribution of endowments, or in the planning of 
courses of study, or in the personal relationships between those 
who teach in different grades of school. Imperfectly realised 
as yet even in the structure of English education, this idea of 
unity is still less mature in the sphere of the training of teach- 
ers. The older English conception of a teacher's professional 
training was empiric. It had the merits and the drawbacks 
of mediaeval apprenticeship. Very slowly, and in great part 
through the influence of Scotland, Germany and the United 
States, the belief in the possibility of a scientific training for 
the teacher's work has made its way into English thought. 
What is now taking place is the gradual adjustment of the 
methods of science to the maxims of practical experience. But 
until we see more clearly the function of each type of school 
(which in turn depends upon still unsettled questions of social 
organisation) it will be impossible to organise with precision 



xiv Introduction 

corresponding types of professional training. We are feeling 
our way, with much hesitation but on the whole with successful 
adaptation of existing agencies to new needs, towards a clearer 
definition of educational ends and thus towards greater pre- 
cision of efifort in the training of teachers. Of this agitated 
yet promising period of transition Dr. Sandiford gives a picture 
in this book. 

M. E. Sadler. 
University of Manchester. 



THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN 
ENGLAND AND WALES 

CHAPTER I 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN ENG- 
LAND AND WALES 

A. The Central Authorities 

Contrary to general belief there is, at the present time, no 
unified central authority controlling and administering all forms 
of education in the British Isles. The complexity of the situation 
is due to the fact that England is "a land of evolution rather than 
of revolution." No social or political upheavals comparable to 
the French Revolution have occurred in England. A sentimental 
regard for old customs and old inheritances, a great reluctance 
to remove old moss-grown laws from the statute books are char- 
acteristic traits of the English. Development has taken place by 
accretion with subsequent absorption rather than by re-organiza- 
tion of a radical nature. Hence it is not surprising to find that 
the educational systems of Scotland and Ireland are quite differ- 
ent from that of England and .Wales, and that the latter system is 
far from being homogeneous. 

Board of Education: The chief central authority for Educa- 
tion in England and Wales is the Board of Education. It is the 
youngest of the great executive departments of state, viz : — the 
Foreign office, the Colonial office, the India office, the War office, 
the Home office, the Admiralty Board, the Board of Works, the 
Board of Trade, the Local Government Board, the Board of Ag- 
riculture and the Board of Education ; and bids fair soon to rival 
all the others in importance.^ The Board of Education, like the 

* The fact that the salary of a Secretary of State, the head of an ofhce, 
is ;^5.ooo ($25,000), while that of a President of a Board is only y^2,ooo 
($10,000), probably accounts for the fact that during the last Liberal 
Administration of four years there have been no less than three Ministers 

I 



2 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Board of Trade, is a development out of a Committee of Privy 
Council. It is composed of the President, the five Secretaries of 
State, the First Commissioner of the Treasury and the Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer,^ but such are the perversities of Enghsh 
constitutional custom, that it never has met and probably never 
will. Yet the Board was created with the complete understand- 
ing that it would probably never meet. There were numerous 
precedents ; at best it had great potential powers and at worst it 
could do no harm. "The president alone constitutes a quorum, 
and he conducts the business of the department with the as- 
sistance of a secretary who is not himself a member of 

the Board, but is, like the president, capable of sitting in the 
House of Commons, and occupies, in short, the position of a 
Parliamentary under-secretary. In practice, therefore, these 
boards are legal phantoms that provide imaginary colleagues for 
a single responsible minister."^ 

The President: The President is appointed by the King 
and if a person so appointed be a member of the House of Com- 
mons, such appointment according to English constitutional cus- 
tom compels him to vacate his seat and seek re-election in his 
constituency. The Parliamentary secretary, being appointed by 
the Board and not by the Crown, need not seek re-election on his 
appointment. The President has a seat in the Cabinet. He is the 
person responsible to the country for all the acts of his numerous 
staff of civil servants. He it is who must answer all questions 
in Parliament relative to the conduct of his department; must 
fight the financial battles of Education with the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer ; must be responsible for all government Education 
Bills presented to Parliament; in short is the elected representa- 
tive of the people and as such must protect their interests at all 
times. The Education Department is an excellent example of the 
efifectiveness of expert service controlled by a layman elected by 
and responsible to the people.* 



of Education. Such rapid changes cannot fail to be detrimental to 
the efficient working of the Department. The remedy is simple — give 
the President of the Board of Education the salary and prestige of a 
Secretary of State. 

^ Board of Education Act, 1899, sec. i. 

' Lowell, A. L., Government of England, I, 84. 

* Duke of Devonshire in Hansard: 4 ser. LXX, 353. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 3 

History of the Board: The " Phantom " Board was estab- 
lished by the Board of Education Act, 1899,^ which came into 
operation on April ist, 1900. This legislation was the third of a 
series of consolidating measures. The first of these, in 1839, was 
the formation of a Committee of Council to "superintend the ap- 
plication of any sums voted by Parliament for the purpose of 
promoting public education." A grant of £20,000 ($100,000) 
had been voted annually by Parliament since 1833 for purposes 
of education. The grant was now raised to £30,000 ($150,000), 
subsequently to much larger amounts, and was to be adminis- 
tered by the special department created for the purpose. 

The second of the measures was the foundation of the Educa- 
tion Department in 1856 which brought the Science and Art 
Department and the Committee of Council on Education under 
the same administrative heads.'' Previous to this time the only 
official representative of the Committee had been the Lord Pres- 
ident of the Council, a member of the House of Lords. By the 
creation of the office of vice-president to be selected by the pre- 
mier from among the members of the House of Commons the 
people were given a more direct control over the grants for edu- 
cation. But the two Departments were never joined ; there was a 
dual control until the actual fusion took place in 1899, although 
the Committee of Council concerned itself chiefly with elemen- 
tary education and the training of elementary school teachers, 
leaving secondary and scientific education under the control of 
the Science and Art Department. 

The Science and Art Department had its origin in the appoint- 
ment of a select Committee of the House of Commons in 1835 "to 
inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the Arts 
and of the Principles of Design among the people (especially the 
manufacturing population) of the country." This committee, re- 
porting in 1836, recommended the establishment of Schools of 
Design. Accordingly a sum of £1,500 ($7,500) was granted for 
the purpose, and the President of the Board of Trade elected cer- 
tain artists and others interested in Art to form the Council of 
the Government School of Design. The school was opened in 
1837. In 1841 schools in the provinces were opened and courses 
were offered for the training of teachers, A re-organization of 



'63 and 64 Vict., c. 33. 
'Order in Council, February 25, 1856. 
Education Department Act, 1856; (19 and 20 Vict. c. 116.) 



4 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

the School of Design took place in 1842. The grant adminis- 
tered by the Board constantly increased until, in 1852, it had 
reached the sum of £15,000 ($75,000). In this year the Council 
was abolished and a Department of Practical Art constituted. In 
the following year a science division was added and the Depart- 
ment of Science and Art was created. The amalgamation of 
Science and Art Department and the Committee of Council on 
Education in 1856 led to a transference of control from the Board 
of Trade to the Education Department. 

The development of the scientific side of the movement pro- 
gressed very rapidly. An elaborate system of examinations and 
payment by results was instituted in 1859. This was the fore- 
runner of the wretched payment by result system which was in- 
stituted by Robert Lowe in his famous code of 1861. In 1856 the 
Parliamentary vote was £64,675 ($323,375) ; in 1894 it had risen 
to £700,722 ($3,503,610). The qualifications of teachers under 
the minutes of the Department rose with the grants. From 1859 
to 1867 the necessary qualifications to teach were obtained by 
passing a general examination ; in the latter year a pass in the ad- 
vanced stage, or in honors, was the requisite qualification ; the 
minimum quahfication was raised to a first class in the advanced 
stage or a pass in the honors in 1888. Training colleges for 
teachers participated in the grant. In 1893, fifty of these insti- 
tutions sent in 4,054 persons for 8,054 examinations thereby earn- 
ing for themselves £7,934 ($39,670) of grant. According to sec. 
2, (i) of the Board of Education Act of 1899 the duties and pow- 
ers of the Science and Art Department were transferred to the 
Board of Education. In this way ended a Department, which 
had, with a fair measure of success, met the demands for scientific 
education during the forty-six years of its existence.''' 

The need for a thorough re-organization of the machinery of 
administration, especially in the field of secondary education, be- 
came very acute in the 90's. Consequently, according to English 
custom, a Royal Commission on Secondary Education was ap- 
pointed in 1894, with James Bryce as Chairman, " to consider 
what are the best methods of establishing a well organized system 
of Secondary Education in England." The commissioners inter- 
preted their task in liberal fashion and their report, brought out 
in 1895, is most comprehensive both in grasp and in interpretative 
solution of the problem. A unified, central authority was shown 

' Calendar, History and General Summary of Regulations of the Depart- 
ment of Science and Art, 1895. (cd. 7601.) 
Sadler, Special Reports 1, p. 12. 
Balfour, Educational Systems, pp. 13, 254-5, 201-2, 272-3. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 5 

to be essential to any scheme of reform, and so they recom- 
mended the constitution of a Department of the Executive Gov- 
ernment, presided over by a Minister responsible to Parliament, 
to whom the charge of elementary education was also to be 
entrusted.^ 

Board of Education Act: Their recommendations were carried 
out almost literally by the third of the measures — the establish- 
ment of the Board of Education in 1899. By the Board of Edu- 
cation Act England obtained a central authority with preponder- 
ating powers over education of all grades.'' The Act is remark- 
able for its elasticity of powers : there is nothing very specific or 
detailed in the nine short sections of which it is composed. The 
chief provisions of the Act are: (i) The creation of a Minister 
of Education who is responsible to Parliament for all education, 
primary, secondary, and technical in England and Wales. (2) 
A Consultative Committee — the first recognition in England of 
the principle that teachers should have a voice in educational 
administration ; a more formal and less precarious method of 
expressing professional opinion than deputations and memorials 
gave ; and a permanent institution for taking stock of educational 
progress without which real efficiency is impossible. (3) A 
Register of qualified teachers, irrespective of sex or rank, con- 
stituted, maintained and controlled by the teachers themselves. 
(4) The inspection and examination of secondary schools by the 
Board's officers or by universities and other organizations ap- 
proved by the Board and the Consultative Committee, except those 
provided under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 
which are to remain under the jurisdiction of the Central Welsh 
Board for Intermediate Education. This again is important 
for it is the first explicit statement of the fact that the State is 
responsible for the secondary, no less than for the primary, edu- 
cation of the country. (5) The total absorption of the Educa- 
tion Department (including the Science and Art Department) 
and the possibility of transfer by the Privy Council of the powers 



'Bryce: Commission on Secondary Education, 1895. i, 256-266. 

' The types of institutions which fall within the Board's jurisdiction 
are (i) public elementary schools; (2) secondary schools; (3) training 
colleges for elementary and for secondary school teachers; (4) technical 
institutions ; (5) schools of art ; (6) training schools for teachers of domestic 
subjects. 



6 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

of the Charity Commissioners of the Board of Agriculture in 
matters appearing to relate to education. In short, the Act 
paved the way for the supervision, co-ordination and regulation 
of the whole system of national education, the universities alone 
excepted, by one supreme central authority. 

Minor ])owers still retained by the Board are the control of 
the Victoria and Albert Museum ; the Royal Colleges of Science 
and Art ; the Geological Survey and Museum ; and the work 
of the Solar Physics Committee.^" 

Organisation of the Board: The organization of the lioard of 
Education is comparatively simple. In the first place it must be 
clearly understood that the Board concerns itself only with edu- 
cation in luigland and Wales. The first great division of the 
Board is between the two countries, England and Wales." 
Wales has a separate department presided over by a permanent 
secretary. It also has its own staff of inspectors and examiners. 
The administration of English education is separated into three 
main divisions : — the Elementary Education Branch ; the Sec- 
ondary Schools Branch (including the education of pupil- 
teachers) ; and the Technological Branch (including continuation 
schools, both day and evening). The heads of these three main 
divisions are styled ])rinci]^al assistant secretaries. The three 
divisions, however, are not water-tight compartments ; in the 
matter of inspection there is much interchange among them.^" 
Training colleges for elementary school teachers are included 
under the general head of elementary education, although there 
is a Training of Teachers Division provided for in the scheme 
of organization. Common to both countries are the Special In- 
quiries and Reports, Legal Branch, the Medical Department, and 
the Consultative Committee. The number of officials employed 

'"An annual appropriation to carry on the work of these various 
institutions is made by Parliament in the Budget. The Board of Edu- 
cation is also reqvtired to publish an annual report outlining the work 
accomplished during the preceding twelve months. Rejiort for iqo8 is 
(cd. 4772). 

" The Welsh Department was created in February, 1907. Except for 
minor changes such as the substitution of the Welsh History for English 
History, etc., the regulations, codes and circulars for the two countries 
are identical. The heads of the Department are directly responsible 
to the President of the Board. 

" Circular to Inspectors, 532. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 7 

by the Board on June 30, 1909, was 1336 of an established 
staff and 187 of a non-established staff /'' Many of these are 
civil servants and all are out of politics.^* The highest ranking 
officials are Inspectors and Examiners. Inspectors are the field 
men. The examiners at the central office receive the reports of 
the inspectors, collect statistics and publish the various official 
regulations. At the head of all, holding a civil service appoint- 
ment, is Sir Robert L. Morant, the permanent secretary of the 
Board. 

The general work of the Board is to administer the Parlia- 
mentary grants for education. Since it is axiomatic, so far as 
educational administration in England is concerned, that there 
shall be " no grants without inspection," the Board maintains 
an annual inspection and exercises a general supervision of the 
schools, issues regulations determining the condition upon which 
the grant may be received, and, in general, sees that the money 
of the people is beneficially and economically expended. 

The detailed work of the Board may be said to be divided into 
(a) central office work and (b) field work which is called 
inspection. 

(a) Work of Central OfUcc: From the central office are 
issued annual reports, codes, regulations, circulars, memoranda, 
blanks for statistical returns and suggestions. The code for ele- 
mentary schools is a body of regulations issued annually, and as 
it receives the sanction of Parliament'"' it has the same force as 
the laws. It is divided into eight chapters and six schedules. 
The chapters deal with such topics as: (i) curriculum, sylla- 
bus and time table; (2) teaching staff; (3) premises, accommo- 
dation and equipment; (4) inspection and reports; (5) exchequer 
grants in aid and annual grant list; (6) higher elementary 
schools; (7) attendance and school meetings; and (8) miscel- 

'^ School Government Chronicle, 2,022. 

" Civil servants, with the exception of Army and Navy officers, cannot 
sit in Parliament. They u.sually abstain from taking an active part in 
politics, although they possess the franchise. On contesting a Parlia- 
mentary Constituency they resign their pcsitions. 4 Anne c. 8; 6 Anne 
c. 7; 25, 26. 

"Section 97, Elementary Education Act, 1870. "No such minute 
of the Education Department shall be deemed to be in force until it 
has lain, for not less than one month, on the table of both Houses of 
Parliament." 



8 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

laneous regulations. The schedules give: (i) information as to 
teachers; (2) the regulations to be observed in the employment 
of teachers undergoing preliminary education; (3) the regula- 
tions for the teaching of special subjects such as domestic sub- 
jects, dairy work and gardening; (4) regulations as to school 
records and registration ; ( 5 ) regulations as to the payment of 
the Fee Grant; and (6) the regulations as to certificates of 
proficiency. 

The chief regulations of the Board, also issued annually but 
not codified, are the regulations for technical schools, schools of 
art, and other forms of provision of further education ; for 
secondary schools ; for the preliminary education of elementary 
school teachers ; for the training of teachers for elementary 
schools ; and for the training of teachers for secondary schools.^® 
Building regulations are issued as often as the exigencies of the 
situation demand. 

Circulars are short, interpretative, or explanatory documents 
having reference to the codes of regulations. They are num- 
bered consecutively and are issued irregularly — at such times as 
the Board deems necessary. Some of the recent circulars have 
been forecasts of regulations to come into force in the near 
future. 

The statistics of the Board of Education are absolutely re- 
liable. This is due to the fact that " all returns called for by 
the Board or Parliament must be duly made."" The statistics 
of public education for a triennial period are published annually. 
They are divided into two parts (for England and Wales) for 
the first time in the 1906-7-8 publication. Each country divides 
its statistics into two sections, one for financial, the other for 
educational statistics. These publications are independent of the 
various annual reports which the Acts of 1870, 1893, 1898 and 
1899, demand shall be laid before Parliament. 

The " Suggestions for the consideration of Teachers, and 
others concerned in the work of Public Elementary Schools," 



'' These various regulations are published annually in collected form 
by the National Union of Teachers and by the proprietors of the School 
Government Chronicle. The former publication is known as "the Red 
Code" and is an invaluable source of information on the statutory regu- 
lation of English education. 

" Elementary school code, 1909, section 47. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 9 

were first issued in 1905. They were part of the fixed scheme 
of the peraianent secretary of the Board for the improvement 
of the curriculum of the elementary school. These suggestions, 
while open to objection on the grounds of retention of the prin- 
ciple of formal discipline and of other evidences of a faulty 
psychology, are illustrative of the newer spirit which is begin- 
ning to stir English education. A revised edition was published 
in the fall of 1909. This is a considerable improvement over 
the original one although the doctrine of formal discipline is 
still to the fore. Especially valuable are the new temperance 
syllabus, the syllabus of physical exercises, and the suggestions 
for the teaching of needlework. Suggestions on rural education, 
by T. S. Dymond, H. M. I., together with specimen courses of 
nature study, gardening and rural economy were published in 
1908 by the Board. 

(b) Inspection: One of the most difficult things for an 
American educator to understand is the English system of in- 
spection which constitutes the field work of the Board. Inspec- 
tion, like many other phases of English Education, is somewhat 
ancient. In 1700 we find on the minutes of the Society for Pro- 
moting Christian Knowledge (S. P. C. K.) the following: " Re- 
solved that the Rev. Mr. Coghan be the Inspector of all the 
Charity Schools in and about London and Westminster."^^ A 
noteworthy feature of the work of the Kildare Place Society 
(1811-1831) was the system of inspection of schools it inaugu- 
rated (see chap. II). In the early days of the government 
grants to education we find that the Committee of Council on 
Education insisted vigorously upon its right to inspect all schools 
and training colleges which received financial assistance from 
the Government. After the introduction of payment by results 
by Lowe's code of 1861 inspection began to assume a new char- 
acter. Instead of a more or less sympathetic supervision, inspec- 
tion became little more than a formal and critical examination 
of the individual pupils ; the deficiencies rather than the excel- 
lencies of teaching were eagerly sought for. There is no doubt 
that the tradition of the days of payment-by-results still lingers, 
that many inspectors do not consider it their duty to instruct and 
supervise the teaching stafT under their charge ; but it is also true 
that a newer and better conception of the function of inspection 

'« Allen and Maclure: S. P. C. K. 1698-189S, p. 143. 



lo Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

is rapidly arising. With the introduction, since 1882, of profes- 
sionally trained inspectors to replace those who had merely high- 
academic qualifications, inspection is more and more assuming 
the role of supervision. The old name is retained but the mean- 
ing now to be attached to it is governmental supervision over 
an area which is wider than that of the local area. With respect 
to this the government states : 

" Now it is plain that, under modern conditions, the Central 
Authority and the Local Authority must have different functions 
to fulfil in respect of the supervision of public education, and 
that friction and waste of energy cannot but ensue if this is not 
remembered, and if the respective spheres of each are not duly 
apportioned and recognized. It is, therefore, imperative to con- 
sider carefully on what principle this apportionment may be best 
arranged. 

It is obvious on the one hand that each local authority has to 
arrange and to supervise, usually through the agency of one 
official, the work of all the many different grades of school 
and forms of education that are needed in its area. It is a 
matter of paramount importance to secure that these are so 
arranged as to work organically and harmoniously together, each 
and all, in the general scheme of education in the area. It is 
thus the local authority's special duty to consider the supervision 
and provision of its various grades of education taken together, 
and in their relation to one another, within the given area. This 
is clearly in the main a local problem ; it is indeed the local 
problem. 

On the other hand it is the special province of the central 
authority not merely to test the efficiency of all schools in 
respect of which it distributes Parliamentary grants, but also and 
in particular to organize efficient sources of educational informa- 
tion and to disseminate in convenient fashion results, criticism, 
and suggestions, derived from continuously recorded observation 
of educational experiments and of the daily work of the various 
kinds of schools and teachers. Such observations, to be authori- 
tative, must in the case of each kind of school be made over a 
■wide area."^^ 

The " wide area " for the inspector is made by dividing up the 
country longitudinally (in accordance with the subdivisions of 
the central office) into three sections: one for the public ele- 
mentary schools; a second for technical schools and others (day 
and evening) concerned with further education ; the third for 
secondary schools and pupil-teacher centers. Each inspector is 

"Circular to Inspectors, 532; Companion to Code, 1908, 216. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales ii 

assigned to one specific division and is expected to devote the 
whole of his time and energies to the work of his particular 
section. The country is divided longitudinally by the Board (ex- 
cept for the inspection of training colleges for teachers) into 
nine divisions. These nine divisions, grouped into three greater 
divisions to facilitate the apportionment of work among the three 
assistant secretaries in each of the three administrative branches 
of the office, with counties comprised in each, are as follows : 



f North: Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmore- 

J land and Durham. 

1 Northwest : Lancashire and Cheshire. 

[ Northeast : The three Ridings of Yorkshire. 



r West Central : Salop, Staffs, Hereford, Worcester, 
I Warwick, Gloucester, Oxon, Berkshire. 
Midland Group -{East Central: Derby, Notts, Leicester, Rutland, 
Northampton, Hunts, Bucks, Herts. 
I East : Lincoln, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex. 

r Southwest : Devon, Somerset, Wilts, Cornwall, Dorset. 
Southern Group < Southeast: Hants, Surrey, Sussex, Kent. 
I Metropolitan: Middlesex, London. 

For the purpose of inspection of the training colleges for teachers, 
the nine geographical divisions are specifically grouped into five groups, 
each under an inspector. They are as follows ; 

I. N., N. E., and N. W 17 colleges. 

II. W. C 13 colleges. 

III. E. C. and E 8 colleges. 

IV. S. E. and S. W 12 colleges. 

V. Metropolitan 12 colleges. 

The inspectors in charge of these divisions only inspect the 
ordinary day and residential colleges within the districts. The 
more specialized training colleges for secondary school teachers, 
and those which are constituent parts of teaching universities, 
are under the charge of Mr. P. A. Barnett, the chief inspector of 
the Board of Education for the training teachers. The training 
colleges which are constituent parts of the universities are as 
follows : 

Birmingham, M and W f'' Bristol, M and W ; Cambridge, M ; 
Leeds, M and W ; Liverpool, M and W ; London, King's College, 

20 M=Colleges for Men. W=ColIeges for Women. 



1 2 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

M ; London, Southampton Row, M and W ; Manchester, M and 
W; Newcastle-on-Tyne, M and W; Oxford, M; Sheffield, M 
and W. (Total ii.) 

The inspectorial areas in Wales are not so clearly differentiated 
as those of England. The inspectors for secondary schools have 
charge of technical schools also. The Chief Inspector for Wales 
inspects all the training colleges in Wales, viz: Aberystwith, 
Day, M and W ; Bangor, Day, M and W ; Bangor, " Normal," 
M ; Bangor, " North Wales," W ; Cardiff, Day, M and W ; Car- 
marthen, M; and Swansea, W. (Total 7.) 

In addition to the inspectors enumerated above there is a staff 
of women inspectors and a number of inspectors of special sub- 
jects, (i) The medical officers of the Board are responsible for 
the inspection of special schools for the blind, deaf, epileptic or 
defective children. (2) There are inspectors of schools of art — 
the divisions being the same as those for training colleges. A 
distinction, however, is made between art classes as such, and 
technical classes, where art is taught as a more or less subsidiary 
subject. The latter are under the control of the inspectors of 
technical schools, although the inspectors of the schools of art 
must give them such assistance as may be necessary. (3) Train- 
ing schools for teachers of domestic subjects are inspected by 
women inspectors, who also inspect special classes for adults in 
domestic subjects; centers and classes in domestic subjects for 
elementary school children; technical classes in those subjects; 
and domestic subjects in Poor Law schools. (4) Drawing and 
handicrafts are inspected by district inspectors, but assistance 
is rendered by a special inspectorial staff, who, like the district 
inspectors themselves, work under the direction of the divisional 
inspectors. (5) Rural education and agriculture is under the 
charge of two special inspectors., (6) Music is under the direc- 
tion of one inspector who gives general oversight to it wherever 
taught. His chief work lies in the annual inspection of music 
in the training colleges. (7) Women inspectors assist in the 
inspection of all training colleges for women, and of mixed col- 
leges, especially with regard to the domestic arrangements and 
the teaching of domestic subjects. 

Inspectors are divided into five classes, viz: chief inspectors, 
divisional inspectors, district inspectors, junior inspectors, and 
sub-inspectors. The office of inspector is non-competitive. Pro- 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 13 

motion is according to length of service and merit. As a class 
the inspectors are excellent men ; their greatest failing is a lack 
of knowledge of pedagogA^ both in its theoretical and practical 
aspects. The days of mild contempt for the subject are rapidly 
passing. Many of those more recently appointed have had excel- 
lent professional training. 

The powers of an inspector are extremely wide. He may visit 
an elementary school in his district at any time and as frequently 
(or infrequently) as he likes. He must approve the syllabus of 
instruction and he may require brief notes of lessons to be pro- 
duced, or such other evidences as will show that the lessons have 
been duly prepared. No annual Parliamentary grant is paid 
on behalf of the school unless the report of the inspector is 
satisfactory. His report, after passing through the hands of his 
chief and those of the examiners at the central office, is returned 
to the school and permanent record of it is made in the log book.^^ 
Inspectorial power is not so great in secondary and technical as 
in elementary schools. Still, the inspector must approve the 
curriculum and certify that the instruction is satisfactory from 
a hygienic point of view. The Board of Education, as successors 
of the Charity Commissioners^^ under the Act of 1899, are au- 
thorized to examine -and inquire by their Inspectors into the 
educational charities in England and Wales. It is not yet known 
whether these powers are equivalent to the powers of inspection 
enjoyed by the Board in the case of secondary schools on the 
grant list, the matter never having been the subject of a judicial 
decision.^^ The inspection of Training Colleges is treated in a 
later chapter. 

Special Inquiries: The Department of Special Inquiries and 
Reports is one of the two educational intelligence bureaus of the 
English Board, — the other being the Consultative Committee. 
The work of the former is unlimited in its scope; that of the 
latter is restricted to questions proposed by the Board, and which 
are naturally confined to educational problems of the British 
Isles. The Department of Special Inquiries and Reports was 
created in 1895. Its first director was Dr. Michael E. Sadler. 
The Sadler Special Reports are world famous, and rightly so, 

^* Code of regulations for elementary schools, section 3,21, 22, 23 and 50. 
^^ The Charitable Trusts Act, 1853, ^^ ^"^ ^7' Vict. c. 137-9. 
" The President of the Board of Education, December 14, 1908. 



1 4 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

for since the time of Barnard's American Journal of Education no 
treatment of educational problems has been quite so comprehen- 
sive or reliable. Sadler resigned in 1903 as a protest against the 
restriction of the usefulness of the department by the other 
officers of the Board of Education.^'* At the time of resigna- 
tion, Sadler had completed eleven volumes and was far into the 
preparation of other volumes. His successor, Dr. H. F. Heath, 
has completed twelve more (Numbers 12-23), the series as a 
whole giving an excellent survey of education in all parts of the 
world. 

Consultative Committee: The Consultative Committee was es- 
tablished, according to the powers granted by section 4 of the 
Board of Education Act 1899, by order in Council of August 7, 
1900. The Committee consisted of 18 members (subsequently 
raised to 21 in 1904) of whom two-thirds were representatives 
of the universities and other bodies interested in education. At 
the present time the Committee is excellently constituted, having 
members representative of elementary, secondary, technical and 
university education, of labor, of the interests of women, and of 
organizations of teachers, but there is no statutory guarantee 
that such an excellent balance of interests will be preserved. The 
duties of the Committee, like those of its prototype — the Comity 
Consultatif in France — are to report and advise upon matters 
submitted to it by the Board. The members serve for six years. 
Six form a quorum at a meeting. All vacancies are filled by the 
President of the Board of Education. The Committee were also 
empowered by section 4 (a) of the Act of 1899 to frame regu- 
lations for a register of teachers, but the section has since been 
repealed.-^ This Committee, in spite of certain inherent defects 
in constitution, is the chief of the dynamic forces behind the 
present educational reform movement in England, providing as 
it does the scientific direction necessary to bring reform to prac- 
tical fruition. The four chief reports of the Committee are (i) 
on higher elementary schools; (2) upon the school attendance of 
children below the age of five; (3) upon the question of devolu- 



^* Papers on the Resignation of Director of Special Inquiries and 
Reports, May 18, 1903. 

^'Education (Administrative Provisions) Act, 1909, sec. 16, (i) 7Edw. 
7. c. 43- 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 15 

tion by county education authorities; and (4) upon attendance, 
compulsory or otherwise, at continuation schools. 

Minor Central Authorities: Up to the present we have been 
considering the Board of Education which is the chief authority 
for England and Wales only. The work of consolidation has 
been slow and is not yet completed. We must now proceed 
further and consider the other minor central authorities in Eng- 
land and Wales together with those for Scotland and Ireland,^^ 
for all are interrelated in so far as they are under the financial 
control of the same Parliament. The subsidiary central authori- 
ties for England and Wales are the Home Office, the Local 
Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the War Office, 
the Admiralty and the Charity Commissioners. The central au- 
thority for Scotland is the Scotch Education Department. Ire- 
land has a Board of Commissioners of National Education for 
its elementary, and two authorities, the Intermediate Education 
Board and the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc- 
tion, for its secondary education. 

Reformatory and industrial schools, so far as they are recog- 
nized by government, together with the children who are em- 
ployed in mills and factories, are still under the control of the 
Home Secretary. 

Reformatory schools are for actual, industrial schools for 
potential delinquents. In both types of school, industrial train- 
ing is given and the children are lodged, clothed, and fed, as well 
as taught. Day industrial schools, where children receive indus- 
trial training, elementary education and one or more meals a day, 
but no lodgings, may also be provided. The reformatory and 
industrial schools are subject to the provisions of the Children's 
Act, 1908 (8 Edw. 7 c. 67) and not to the various elementary 
education Acts from 1870- 1908. 

Poor Law Schools are under the jurisdiction of the Local 
Government Board. In 1904, however, a step to further the 
consolidation of the Poor Law Schools under the Board of Edu- 
cation was taken. This was the transference of the inspection 
of such schools from the Local Government Board to the Board 



^® An account of the educational administration of Scotland and 
Ireland is beyond the scope of this work. Since, however, the whole of 
the education of the United Kingdom is controlled by the same body, 
viz., Parliament, it has been thought desirable to insert a brief account 
in order to round off the subject. 



1 6 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

of Education.-' In 1909 the transfer was not complete. Besides 
the sixty-six schools conducted by Boards of Guardians and Man- 
agers of Poor Law school districts whose inspection was trans- 
ferred, there were other ninety schools providing elementary edu- 
cation for Poor Law children certified by the Local Government 
Board under the Act of 1862. Of the latter, sixty-four only were 
under the inspection of the Board of Education, five of the 
Home Office as industrial schools, and one of the Admiralty. 
The Minister of Education has promised to take over the remain- 
ing twenty schools.^* 

The association of Local Government Board with the educa- 
tion of pauper children is of historical origin. Previous to 1871, 
when the Local Government Board was created (34 and 35 Vict, 
c. 70) to take over the functions of the Poor Law Board and 
the supervision of the laws relating to public health and local 
government, the education of pauper children was entirely in 
the hands of the Poor Law Board (10 and 11 Vict. c. 109) and 
its forerunner the Poor Law Commission (4 and 5 Will. IV. 
c. y6). That the work was shockingly neglected there is not 
the slightest reason to doubt, although an ill-advised and unsuc- 
cessful attempt to train schoolmasters for Poor Law Schools was 
made by the establishment of a Government Training School, 
Kneller Hall at Hounslow, in 1850. Since 1871 the manage- 
ment of Poor Law Schools has improved tremendously, although 
it came to be recognized that the segregation of pauper children 
in special schools was not a very desirable thing.^'' 

The Board of Agriculture may inspect and finance any school, 
not elementary, which gives instruction connected with agricul- 
ture or forestry. Such powers over education according to sec- 
tion 2 (2) of the Board of Education Act of 1899 may be taken 
over by the Board of Education. A working arrangement be- 
tween the Board of Education and the Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries with respect to agricultural education was made in 
1909. According to this agreement agricultural instruction of 
an advanced (i. e. collegiate) nature will remain mider the direc- 
tion of the Board of Agriculture ; other forms of agricultural in- 

^' This was in reality a return to the status quo, for between 1856 and 
1863 the Education Department had enjoyed the right of in.spection of 
Poor Law Schools. 

^* School Government Chronicle: 2,022. 

^' See Balfour: Educational Systems, p. 63-69. Chance: Children 
under the Poor Law, p. 2-5. Newcastle Commiss-ion Report, iS6r, I, 352- 
385. Tufnell: Reports on the Training of Pauper Children, 1841 and 1852. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 17 

struction under the Board of Education. To prevent overlapping 
and duplication of work, a Rural Education Conference has 
been constituted. It consists " of members nominated by the 
County Councils Association, the Agricultural Society of Eng- 
land, the Agricultural Education Association and other leading 
agricultural organizations, together with six additional members 
to be nominated by the Presidents of the two Boards so as to 
provide for the inclusion (a) of persons specially competent to 
deal with educational problems so far as the rural districts are 
concerned, and (b) of representatives of districts not adequately 
covered by existing agricultural organizations."^" In addition an 
Inter-departmental Committee consisting of the responsible offi- 
cers of the two Boards has been constituted. This committee 
meets from time to time, as often as is necessary. Further, T. S. 
Dymond, one of the inspectors of the Board for agricultural 
education, published an official Suggestion on Rural Education of 
which mention was made earlier in the chapter. 

Army schools for soldiers and for their children fall within 
the jurisdiction of the War Office. Since 1898, a field-officer, 
known as the director of Army schools, has had general direction 
and supervision of these schools. ^^ 

The Admiralty is the central authority for a complex system 
of navy schools giving elementary education, not only to children 
of mariners and persons in Admiralty employment, but also to 
boys in training and in sea-going ships, and to marines and blue 
jackets in service either afloat or ashore. The Chaplain of the 
Fleet is the inspector for all naval schools. His staflf of teachers 
have all been trained. 

Previous to the passing of the Board of Education Act, the 
Charity Commissioners had extensive powers over secondary edu- 
cation in England and Wales. These powers were conferred by 
two principal sets of Acts of ParHament, namely: (a) The 
Charitable Trusts Acts 1853 to 1891 ; and (b) the Endowed 
Schools Acts 1869 to 1874. The powers imder the Charitable 
Trusts Acts are general and include: (i) power to inquire 
into the administration of endowments; (2) power to compel the 
production of accounts and information; (3) power to appoint 

'" Memorandum of arrangements between Boards of Education and 
Agriculture, 1909. 

^> Balfour: Educational Systems, 70-74. 



1 8 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

and remove trustees and other officers ; (4) power to vest real 
and personal estate, and otherwise to safeguard the property of 
the endowments; (5) power to control legal proceedings taken 
on behalf of the endowments, and (6) power to make schemes 
for the endowments, so as to adapt their administration to meet 
occurring changes, but subject to the rule of cy pres}^ The 
powers under the Endowed School Act are quite specific and are 
directed to the framing of schemes for the regulation of various 
endowments. The method of framing a scheme is exceedingly 
cumbersome and is seldom completed in less time than a year.^^ 

The Charity Commissioners are six in number, four appointed 
under the Charitable Trust Act 1853 (16 and 17 Vict. c. 137) 
and two under the Endowed Schools Acts, 1874 (37 and 38 
Victs. c. 87) which transferred to the Charity Commissioners all 
the powers previously vested in the Endowed Schools Commis- 
sioners.^* One of the commissioners is unpaid and holds a seat 
in the House of Commons. 

The Act of 1899 made it lawful for the Privy Council to 
transfer all the powers of the Charity Commissioners, which 
related to the endowments held, or parts of endowments deter- 
mined by them to be held, solely for educational purposes, to the 
Board of Education. By successive orders of 1900, 1901 and 
1902 the whole of these powers have been transferred. In this 
way a more unified central authority, which paved the w'ay for 
the complete re-organization by the Act of 1902, was constituted. 

Central Authority for Scotland: The central authority for Scot- 
land is the Scotch Education Department, at whose head is the 
Secretary for Scotland. This Department was established as a 
Committee of the Privy Council in 1872.^' All responsibility re- 
mained with the president of the Council, an English minister, 
until 1885, when a Secretary for Scotland was appointed (48 
and 49 Vict. c. 61) and placed at the head of the Department. 
The Secretary, in addition, discharges duties for Scotland cor- 
responding to those of the Home office and Local Government 
Board for England. His salary is £2,000 ($10,000) a year. 

^^ Bryce: Secondary Education Commission, I, p. 20. 

'^ For the details of the procedure see Bryce: Secondary Education 
Commission, I, pp. 21-23. 

^^ These were created by the Endowed Schools Act, 1869 (32 and t^t, 
Vict. c. 56). 

^^ Section i of Education (Scotland) Act 1872 (35 and 36 Vict. c. 62). 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 19 

Central Authorities for Ireland: Irish education is controlled 
by three central authorities — the Board of Commissioners of Na- 
tional Education for elementary education ; the Intermediate Edu- 
cation Board for secondary education; and the Department of 
Agriculture and Technical Instruction for technical education 
and the scientific aspects of secondary education. 

The object of the Board of Commissioners is to carry on a 
scheme of elementary education which affords combined literary 
and moral, and separate religious instruction to children of all 
persuasions. Accordingly, the commissioners have drawn up an 
elaborate set of regulations which divide up the school-day into 
the religious and secular periods, and which permit the priests 
or authorized laity of the various denominations to give religious 
instruction to those children belonging to their particular de- 
nomination during the time set apart for the teaching of religion.^* 

The Board of Commissioners was founded in 183 1. In 1845 
the Board was incorporated by Royal Charter and power was 
given to the Commissioners to hold land, to erect and support 
schools, and to provide generally for the education of the poor 
of Ireland out of funds furnished by Parliament. A new charter 
was granted to the Board in 1861. This charter increased the 
number of commissioners to twenty, of whom ten were to be 
Roman Catholics and ten Protestants. Changes can be intro- 
duced by the commissioners without an Act of Parliament. They 
must, however, carry out their operations according to the Regu- 
lations framed in accordance with the series of Acts of Parlia- 
ment, 1875 to 1909. In practice, therefore, the commissioners 
simply frame rules to carry out the wishes of the government. 
The power of appointment and removal of the commissioners is 
in the hands of the Lord Lieutenant for Ireland. The chief 
executive is a resident commissioner who is a salaried officer. 
The other commissioners are unpaid and are of various religious 
persuasions. Considerable dissatisfaction is manifested with the 
working of the Irish scheme. The report of F. H. Dale, one of 
His Majesty's inspectors, published in 1904, showed the existence 
of many deficiencies, economic and otherwise.^^ 

'* Sadler: Special reports, I, 211-257. 

"See Sadler: Special Reports, I, 211-257, 733. 

U. S. Commission Ex-Reports, 1904, 822. 

Powis: Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Primary 
Education, Ireland, 8 vols., 1870. 



20 



Training of Teachers in England and Wales 



The secondary education of Ireland is in rather a chaotic state. 
It is largely controlled by the Intermediate Education Board (In- 
termediate Education Ireland) Act, 1878, (41 and 42 Vict. c. 66) 
which conducts an extensive series of public examinations and 
distributes grants to the schools according to the successes of the 
pupils. The income of the Board is made up of the interest 
on a government fund of ii,ooo,ooo ($5,000,000) placed at the 
disposal of the Board, which yielded in 1903 interest amount- 
ing to £27,000 ($137,000), and a sum from the Irish share 
of the customs and excise duties, which averages about £50,000 
($250,000) annually. A system of inspection was inaugurated in 
1908. Technical instruction is in the hands of the Department 
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland (62 and 63 
Vict. c. 50). This department, so far as Ireland is concerned, 
has replaced the Science and Art Department. Under this Act 
of 1899, a Council of Agriculture, an Agricultural Board, a Board 
of Technical Instruction, and a co-ordinating Consultative Com- 
mittee have been created. The Board of Technical Instruction 
expends £55,000 ($165,000) annually, trains teachers, and en- 
deavors to co-ordinate the various phases of educational activities. 
There is, however, considerable overlapping between the work 
of the Intermediate Educational Board and that of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. 

B. The Local Authorities 

For the purpose of local government England and Wales are 
divided into Administrative Counties, County Boroughs, Munic- 
ipal Boroughs and Urban Districts. Alunicipal boroughs are 
cities ranging from 10,000 to 50,000 population and were created 
by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882 to manage the admin- 
istrative and financial business of the municipal areas. County 
boroughs are cities having not less than 50,000 inhabitants.^^ 
An administrative county is identical with a geographical county 
(or its subdivision, as in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire) except for 
the exclusion of the small area of the county borough. ^^ Admin- 
istrative counties and county boroughs were created by the Local 

^* A few ancient boroughs have less than this number. 
'* There are only 52 geographical counties — 40 in England and 12 
in Wales. In 1908 there were 62 administrative counties. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 2 1 

Government Act of 1888 (51 and 52 Vict. c. 41). Urban dis- 
tricts are subdivisions of the area of the administrative county. 
They were created in 1894 by the Local Government Act (56 
and 57 Vict. c. 73).*'^ 

Local Areas: These four existing administrative divisions, by 
the Education Act of 1902,*^ were made into local areas for the 
purpose of educational administration. A distinction, however, 
is drawn between administrative counties and county boroughs 
on the one hand, and municipal boroughs and urban districts on 
the other, with respect to the extent of their powers over educa- 
tional affairs. The administrative county and county boroughs 
are co-equal with respect to the administration of all types of 
education — elementary, technical, secondary and higher. Urban 
districts, providing they have a population of not less than 20,000, 
and municipal boroughs of not less than 10,000 inhabitants, are 
autonomous with respect to the administration of elementary edu- 
cation within their areas ; the provision of other types of educa- 
tion remaining with the larger area — the administrative county.*- 

The councils of these areas are the local education authorities.*^ 
No new body was constituted for the special purposes of educa- 
tion, but educational interests were given to a body already pos- 
sessing great powers over the various forms of local administra- 
tion. The correlation of all the local activities is thus made 
possible. In 1908 the number of authorities was 328, distributed 
as follows : 

62 Councils of administrative counties. 
74 Councils of county boroughs. 
137 Councils of autonomous municipal boroughs. 
54 Councils of autonomous urban districts. 
I Council for the Isles of Scilly. 

328 



*" The fifth local government area — the Parish — plays no part in 
education, except a minor one in the administration of certain educa- 
tional charities and in the appointment of managers. 

" 2 Edw. VII., c. 42. 

*' A few boroughs like Stafford and Warwick have surrendered their 
autonomies and are now merged into the county authorities. Educa- 
tion Act, 1902, sec. 20b. 

*^ Education Act, 1902, sec. i. 



2 2 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The Council: The Council is elected by a direct vote of the 
people. This provides for public control, but as education is only- 
one of the many issues at elections, it is usually subordinated 
and sometimes it is lost sight of altogether. The councils re- 
placed the boards of education which were ad hoc authorities 
created by the Elementary Education Act of 1870. The loss of 
popular interest in education has been attributed by the supporters 
of the ad hoc principle to the great extent of the educational 
area (true only of the administrative county) and to the con- 
stitution of the membership of the council. The wider area has 
created a serious amount of " red tape," while the membership 
of the council, in a large measure, is recruited from people whose 
primary interest is certainly not education. The remedy for the 
former evil is the creation of district committees** to utilize the 
patriotism of the local members ; the remedy for the latter — the 
fuller recognition of the co-opted members.*^ 

Education Committee: The multifarious duties of the council 
would prevent due attention being paid to educational matters, so 
section 17 of the 1902 Act makes provision for the establishment 
of an education committee or committees of the council. To this 
committee*® may be entrusted all the powers of the council under 
the Act except the power of raising a rate, or borrowing money. 
The majority of the committee are to be appointed and, except in 
counties, must be members of the council ; the remainder may be 
made up of representatives of local organizations and of persons 
of experience in education. Women must be included in the com- 
mittee. Teachers and education officials may be members of the 
committee. The Board of Education must approve the scheme 
and no scheme is approved which does not provide for the co- 
ordination of all types of education within the area. The usual 
proportion of the committee are two-thirds from the council, one- 
third co-opted, two or three of whom are women. Membership 
of the committee runs from fifteen to fifty, the median being about 
twenty-five. 

** Act of 1902, sec. 17 (5). 

** Act of 1902, sec. 17 (3). 

*^ Since the education committee is a statutory committee it cannot 
be treated in the same way as an ordinary committee of the council, 
e.g., as the gas or the tramways committee. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 23 

Since the legislative and executive functions of education com- 
mittees are not clearly differentiated, it is customary to distribute, 
the work among a number of sub-committees. The greater the 
complexity of the system, the more numerous are the sub-corn-- 
mittees. In London there are eleven; viz. — general purposes, 
books and apparatus, buildings and attendance, day schools, en- 
dowments, higher education, non-provided schools, survey, poly- 
technic and evening schools, special schools, teaching staff, and 
underfed children's sub-committees. A twelfth special sub-com- 
mittee on medical treatment of children attending public elemen- 
tary schools was formed in 1907. A more usual number for coun- 
ties and county boroughs is six. These are for higher education, 
elementary education, evening schools, school management, school 
attendance and finance. In all cases the sub-committees report 
to the general committee. Matters are expedited usually by the 
distribution of printed agenda among the members. 

Managers: The Act of 1902 also provided a number of man- 
agers. Managers, according to section 3 of the Elementary Edu- 
cation Act 1870, are persons who have the management of any. 
elementary school, whether the legal interest in the schoolhouse 
is or is not vested in them. The managers have played a most 
important, yet often unknown, part in the work of educational 
administration. They are the people who have bridged over the 
gap between the teacher and the central unknown office and have 
made him feel that his work was of very real value to the nation. 
In a word they give the h.imian touch to the " red tape " of 
bureaucracy. They are now divided into two main classes: (i) 
the managers of provided or council schools, the successors of 
the old board schools; and (2) the managers of non-provided 
schools, the successors of the old voluntary schools. The powers 
and manner of appointment of managers to the provided or coun- 
cil schools differ according as they are appointed by the County. 
Council or by the borough (whether county or non-county) and. 
urban districts. The Act makes it obligatory on the council of 
the county to appoint four managers, to whom two must be added 
by the minor local authority.*^ In the case of. boroughs and 

*' A minor local authority is the body responsible for the local govern-, 
mentof a small area such as district or parish. In administrative counties 
it is generally the parish covmcil that has the power to nominate the 
two managers of the council school and the single manager of the volun-. 
tary school within that parish. 



24 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

urban districts the area is so small that it is optional with the 
councils whether to have managers or not. If they have them 
the number is not fixed by statute, nor are the duties defined except 
by the council staff. Managers cannot be removed when once 
appointed so it is customary to appoint them for a limited time 
only. 

The method of appointment of managers to the non-provided 
or voluntary schools has caused much friction between the two 
great religious factions of England — the non-conformists and the 
church people. This is due to the fact that of the normal number 
of six managers, four styled foundation managers are appointed 
under the trust deeds or under a special order of the Board. *^ 
The other two are appointed by local education authorities. If 
the authority is a county council, then the council appoints one 
and the minor local authority the other, but if the authority is 
the council of a borough or urban district, both are appointed by 
the body. Thus the balance of power is always with the religious 
denomination*'* although the school enjoys the same privileges 
with respect to government grants and support by local rates 
as does the provided or council school. Moreover, the powers 
of the voluntary school managers are far greater than those of 
council schools. 

It will thus be seen that the Act of 1902 provides for diverse 
forms of devolution or delegation of powers of the local authority 
to various committees, some of which are strictly local in char- 
acter. Although up to the present, no county council acting as 
local authority has utilized the powers granted under section 17 
(5) by means of which separate education authorities are created 
for separate parts of its area, yet many of them have delegated 
certain wide powers to the bodies of managers in their respective 
districts. In this way local interest in education has been main- 
tained, local advice has been given to the central authority, and 
travelling expenses of members of the central staff and county 
committee have been minimized.^" On the other hand it has been 



** Sec. II, Education Act, 1902. 

*' The managers control the religious exercises of the school and to a 
great extent the religious observances of the teachers employed by them. 

'" Report of the consultative committee upon the question of devolu- 
tion by county education authorities (cd. 3952) 1908, pp. 5-11. In this 
report the arguments pro and con on the question of devolution are 
admirably set forth. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 25 

maintained that such devolution of powers is attended by a loss 
of educational and administrative efficiency. The problem has not 
yet been settled ; the economies attendant upon centralized admin- 
istration and the life and vigor given by conserved local interest 
must be adjusted so as to give the greatest possible total efficiency. 
In the English scheme are potentialities greater than those of any 
other country of the world. 

Local Authority; Pozvers and Duties: The general duties of 
the local authorities may be summed up as follows : to provide 
the machinery for the various forms of education, to receive and 
disburse the government grants for schools, and to levy local taxes 
to make up the excess cost of education over the grants received 
from the government. The powers of the local authority are 
extremely wide; government fixes the minimum standards and 
sees that they are reached by means of its system of inspection, 
but leaves the local authority possessed of a higher degree of 
mdependence. Consequently, we find in English education, as 
in English life in general, that phenomenon best expressed by the 
biological term variability.^^ 

The detailed powers and duties are too many to enumerate. 
In general they comprise power to provide (i) for elementary 
education of all children up to sixteen years of age; (2) for 
higher education, if such powers be conferred upon them by the 
Act of 1902 ; (3) for the training of teachers ; (4) for the award- 
ing of scholarships to students in schools, colleges or universities ; 
(5) for the medical inspection of school children; (6) for the 
feeding of necessitous school children either with or without the 
co-operation of societies; and (7) for the provision of play- 
grounds where organized games may be played during school 
hours. '^ 

The general statement that it is the duty of the local authorities 
to provide the machinery for the various forms of education im- 

*' The uniformity of American education, in spite of great expanse 
of territory and widely diverse conditions, is a feature noticed by all 
English visitors to these shores. This uniformity is probably due to 
the vigor of the various educational associations. (See Miss Burstall's 
Impressions of American Education in 1908.) 
" Education Act, 1902. Part IV. 
Education Act, 1907. 

Consultative Committee's Report on attendance: I, 11 7-1 18. 
Elementary School Code, Art. 44. 



2 6 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

plies that a great number of functions must be exercised. The 
local authority, for example, must see that suitable buildings ade- 
quately furnished are provided, that free elementary education 
is provided for all children who desire it ; that pupils intending, 
to follow the teaching profession are properly educated; that a 
properly qualified school staff is provided; that by-laws for the 
compulsory attendance of children at school are framed and exer- 
cised ; that the various forms of education are co-ordinated ; that 
constant improvement in schools, with respect to equipment, to 
qualifications of staff and to the course of study, is made; and 
that the statistical returns to the Board of Education are adequate 
and accurate. The local authority may also introduce special and 
industrial subjects into curriculum; may establish employment 
registries ; may co-operate with parents and employers in finding 
suitable employment for the scholars of leaving age ; may provide 
conveyances for children living great distances from school ; may 
provide country schools for town children ; may provide special 
schools for truants, defective and incorrigibles ; and, in a host 
of other ways, provide for the material and moral welfare of the 
children under its care. 

School Attendance: With respect to school attendance in Eng- 
land the government states that children must attend school from 
the age of 5 to 14, exceptions being made in certain cases for 
children over twelve,^^ but the by-laws for school attendance are 
made by the local authority and are only operative in the area 
over which the local authority has jurisdidction. Since government 
grants are distributed in part on the basis of average attendance we 
find that the attendance at school of English children is usually 
excellent. It is no uncommon thing to find a school which has had 
an average attendance of 96 per cent during a period of six years. 
Such regularity as this implies an excellent organization of the 
school attendance officers. The local area is usually divided into 
school attendance districts over which is placed a school attend- 
ance officer. In London there are 300 such districts ; in Man- 
chester, 104, Each officer is responsible for the attendance of 
children in his district. A duplicate set of registers is supplied 
to him weekly and the case of any child making habitually less 



" Children under five but over three are also admitted but this is 
optional with the local authority. 



Administration of Education in England and Wales 27 

than ten attendances is investigated. In addition, school censuses 
are taken in some areas, and special truant officers to pick up 
children wandering in streets during school hours and to trace 
families who have removed are also appointed. In spite of the 
excellence of the results, the employment of the " card " system 
would reduce enormously the mechanical labors of the book- 
keeping. 

Supervision: The terms superintendent and supervisor are un- 
known in England. Instead of superintendent the chief executive 
officer of the education committee is usually designated director, 
chief secretary, or organizing secretary. The supervisor and 
special supervisor are replaced by the local inspector and the 
" organizer " of special subjects. Much of the work of the local 
inspection, and indeed of governmental inspection as well, par- 
takes of the nature of supervision. In some cases, however, the 
tradition of inspection is so strong, that supervision as it is under- 
stood in America finds no place at all. The introduction of the 
word supervisor would be of incalculable benefit to English 
elementary education at the present time. Inspectors and organ- 
izers are still few in number although rapidly on the increase. 
Manchester has four local inspectors, Sheffield only three. Lon- 
don has forty-one inspectors and twenty-eight organizers for the 
twelve districts into which the county of London is divided. 
Somerset, largely an agricultural county, has only two inspectors, 
one of whom is termed the organizing inspector of domestic 
science. 

The above figures will indicate at once to those familiar with 
supervision as practised in America, that England is only at the 
beginning of her task. The prevention of waste of energy and 
the re-direction of the misguided efforts of the teachers into more 
profitable channels will necessitate the creation of a supervisory 
force the size of which can as yet be only roughly approximated. 
The problem is a local one and must be solved by the individual 
local authorities. London has attacked the problem in earnest 
and the results justify the effort. Other local authorities would 
do well to follow the example of London, 

In conclusion it may be stated that the re-organization of Eng- 
lish education, both central and local, is progressing with extreme 
rapidity. Since 1900 there has been practically one unified central 
authority, the Board of Education, responsible for the central 



28 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

administration of all types of education. Since 1902 the local 
authorities have also been charged with the superintendence of 
all forms of education within their own particular area. The 
effect of the latter was greatly to increase the amount of " red 
tape," but in this respect the system has now sunk to a normal 
level. Care has been taken to preserve local interests and local 
independence wherever possible, and while this adds to the diffi- 
culties of administration (and incidentally to the difficulties of 
explanation of the system) it undoubtedly adds to the efficiency 
of the system as a whole. 



CHAPTER II 
HISTORY OF THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

Prior to iS^p: The part played by England in the training of 
teachers can by no stretch of imagination be considered brilliant. 
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when Germany 
was establishing on firm foundation a national system of teacher- 
training, England was practically inactive. The nineteenth cen- 
tury opened with philanthropic attempts to train monitors in the 
cheapest possible fashion, but these proved dismal failures in less 
than half a century. The monitorial system was followed by an 
inadequate pupil-teacher system of training. The government at 
this time was willing to give financial aid for the training of 
teachers, although religious jealousies prevented it from assum- 
ing full responsibility. It was not until the last decade of the 
century that the nation awoke to the necessity of giving a gen- 
erous professional training to its teachers. How complete was 
the awakening is shown by the present feverish activity of reform 
along these and related lines. 

Yet England made an honorable beginning. Richard Mulcaster 
(1530/2-1611), the contemporary of Roger Ascham, the teacher 
of Edmund Spenser and the first headmaster of the Merchant 
Taylors' School,^ writing in his book " Positions " outlined, in 
1 581, a scheme for a university which was to consist of seven 
colleges. One of these was to be a training college for teachers. 
Stating the reasons for the training of teachers he proceeds : 
"And why should not these men have both this sufficiency in 
learning, and such room to rest in, then to be chosen and set 
forth for the common service? Be either children or schools 
so small a portion of our multitude! or is the framing of young 
minds, and the training of their bodies so mean a point of cun- 
ning? Be schoolmasters in this realm such a paucity, as they 
are not even in good sadness to be soundly thought on? if the 



' Oliphant: Richard Mulcaster, XV. 

29 



30 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

chancel have a Minister, the belfry hath a master; and where 
youth is, as it is each where, there must be trainers, or there will 
be worse. He that will not allow of this careful provision for 
such a seminary of masters, is most unworthy either to have a 
good master himself, or hereafter to have a good one for his. 
Why should not teachers be well provided for, to continue their 
whole life in the school, as Divines, Lazvyers, Physicians do in 
their several professions? Thereby judgment, cunning and dis- 
cretion will grow in them — Whereas now, the school being used 
for a shift, afterward to pass thence to the other professions, 
though it send out very sufficient men to them, itself remaineth 
too too naked, considering the necessity of the thing. I conclude 
therefore, that this trade requireth a particular college, for these 
four causes: I. First for the subject being the mean to make or 
mar the whole fry of our state. II. Secondly for the number, 
whether of them that are to learn, or of them that are to teach. 
III. Thirdly for the necessity of the profession which may not 
be spared. IV. Fourthly for the matter of their study which 
is comparable to the greatest professions, for language, for 
judgment, for skill how to train, for variety in all points of 
learning, where in the framing of the mind, and the exercising 
of the body craveth exquisite consideration, beside the staid- 
ness of the person." ^ 

Two kinds of statements are commonly met with in the 
writings of early English educators ; the first expressing a 
supreme dissatisfaction with the qualifications of the existing 
schoolmasters, the second making specious promises and 
giving explicit directions whereby these same poor teachers 
may become experts in the various branches of their profes- 
sion. Of the former type the statement of John Lyly in the 
'■ Anatomy of Wit " (1579) may be cited as an example. " If 
among all his servants he shall espy one either filthy in his 
talk, or foolish in his behavior, either without wit, or void of 
honesty, either an unthrift or a wittall, him he sets not as 
a surveyor and overseer of his manors, but a supervisor of 
bis children's conditions and manners, to him he committeth 
ye guiding and tuition of his sons, which is by his proper 



^ Mulcaster's Positions. Quick's Reprint, pp. 248-9. Spelling modified 
to conform to modem standards. 



History of the Training of Teachers -31 

nature a slave, a knave by condition, a beast in behavior."^ 
Of the latter Edmund Coote's reckless promises in his " Eng- 
lishe Scholemaister," 1662, are typical : " I profess to teach 
thee that art utterly ignorant to read perfectly, to write truly 
and with judgment to understand the true reason of our 
English tongue with great expedition and pleasure. I will 
teach thee that art unperfect in either of them, to perfect thy 
skill in few days with good ease — I assure all schoolmasters 
of the English tongue, that they shall not only teach their 
scholars with greater perfection, but also they shall with more 
ease and profit, and in shorter time teach an hundred scholars, 
than before they could teach forty."* 

John Brinsley (1587-1665), the schoolmaster of Ashby-de- 
la-Zouch, in his " Consolation for our Grammar Schooles " 
(1662) rightly diagnoses the case when he states that " the 
evils which grow from ignorance of a right order of teach- 
ing '' are due to the fewness of those who " are acquainted 
with any good method of right order of instruction fit for a 
grammar schoole." 

Charles Hoole (1618-1666), the translator of the " Orbis 
Pictus " of Comenius, and the author of at least twenty-four'^ 
works on education, shows in " the Petty School," " the 
Usher's Duty," and " the New Discovery of the Old Art of 
Teaching " that he was fully alive to the necessity of provid- 
ing teachers who were capable of using more advanced 
methods than were then customary. 

The foregoing passages are illustrative of the needs of the 
time and the unsatisfactory way in which they were met. 
The evil was accentuated by the intolerant Acts of the 
Stuarts — the Act of Uniformity 1662, the Five Mile Act of 
1665 and the two Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670 — which 
drove many intelligent non-conformist pastors and teachers 
from the country. 

A proposal which promised to relieve the situation somewhat 
was that of the Society for Promoting (or Propagating, which 

^ Cf. also Fuller: The Good Schoolmaster, in Barnard: EngHsh Peda- 
gogy, I, 403. 

* These extracts are from Foster Watson: Early EngHsh writers on 
Education. C. R. 1904, 634-701. 

' Barnard: EngHsh Pedagogy, II, p. 191. 



32 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

was used as an alternative title) Christian Knowledge. This so- 
ciety was founded by Dr. Bray in 1698 and had for its object " the 
education of poor children in reading and writing, and more 
especially in the principles of the Christian religion."" The 
schools founded by the society became known as " charity 
schools " and towards their support " charity sermons " were 
preached. The intention of the society to provide a national 
system of education for the poor was never realized, yet the 
number and distribution of the schools in the first half of the 
eighteenth century indicate that a vigorous educational cam- 
paign was prosecuted. The foundation of a large number of 
new schools created a demand for schoolmasters " of a good 
genius for teaching " who could " write a good hand." 
" A training institution for the preparation of masters was 
proposed in 1703, and though funds seem to have been want- 
ing at that time, yet the project was not lost sight of, and 
school masters were recommended to associate together for 
mutual instruction and assistance. "'' 



' Allen and McClure: S. P. C. K. 169S-1898, p. 23. 

' Allen and McClure: S. P. C. K., p. 143. I have been unable to verify 
this statement. The first authentic account of training of teachers in 
England that I have been able to discover is that which describes the 
work of Joseph Lancaster in his school at Borough Road in 1805, although 
the following History of the Homerton College, Cambridge, is given 
in the annual report for 1908: — "The work of the College dates from 
the foundation of the King's Head Society in 1695. This society was 
established for the purpose of aiding weak Congregational Churches, and 
seems from the first to have taken in not only the preaching but the 
teaching work of such churches. In 1723 the Society became amalga- 
mated with the Congregational Fund Board, and an Academy was 
started in 1730 at the Plasterer's Hall. It was removed to Mile End 
in 1753, and to Homerton in 1769. The work of training both ininisters 
and teachers at Homerton was continued through the eighteenth century, 
and the College was rebuilt in 1822, and carried on as a residential col- 
lege under Dr. John Pye-Smith. For some time previously the work 
of training teachers had been discontinued, theological students only 
being admitted. At the Congregational Union meeting in 1843 i^ ^^^ 
decided to raise a sum of ;£2 50,000 for educational purposes, and the 
Congregational Board of Education was founded. * * * in 1850 
Homerton College was purchased and the Board's Educational work 
was carried on there until 1894, when Cavendish College, Cambridge, 
was bought and the work of the Congregational Board of Education 
transferred to it." 



History of the Training of Teachers 35 

The charity schools and the various endowed schools which 
sprang into existence after the removal of the non-conformist 
disabilities provided the country with some 2,500 schools for 
the education of the poor.^ This revival of interest in educa- 
tion proved to be but temporary. Before the close of the 
century the nation was as apathetic as ever. 

Contrast this with the situation abroad. Germany was in- 
stituting a national system of education. In addition she was 
making extensive provision for the training of teachers. In 
1696 Francke established his Seminarium Praeceptorium at 
Halle. Two years later Frederick II founded ten " Seminaria 
Scholastica." Francke's work was continued and extended 
by two of his pupils, Schienmeyer and Hecker. Schienmeyer 
established a department for training teachers at Stettin in 
1732. Hecker opened a normal school at Berlin in 1748 
which gave such an impetus to the teacher training movement 
that before the close of the century Germany was fairly well 
provided with normal schools. The work of Basedow at Des- 
sau, of Salzmann at Schnepfenthal are also worthy of men- 
tion. In France and Switzerland we also find, in the latter 
half of the country, a widespread idea of the necessity for the 
training of schoolmasters. Our word " normal' ' remains as 
a proof of the influence of French ideas and terminology upon 
the English conception of the training of teachers. 

These continental schools were almost certainly visited in 
the eighteenth century by English teachers, who must have 
felt their influence, yet it is not until the nineteenth century 
that we find authentic accounts of such visits. Dr. Bell 
visited Yverdun, Hofwyl and Fribourg in 1816. Of Pesta- 
lozzi he writes, " the chief I am charmed with : he has much 
that is original, much that is excellent. If he had a course 
of study — if he were to dismiss four-fifths of his masters, 
retaining three, and to adopt the monitorial system and the 
classification of a Madras School, with the emulation, he 
would be super-excellent."" Of more lasting benefit were the 
visits paid by Sir Jas. Kay Shuttleworth and by Matthew 
Arnold for they had direct bearing upon the educational 



• De Montmorency: National Education and National Life, p. 204. 
» Southey: Life of Bell, vol. Ill, p. 94. 



34 Training of Teacher^ in England and Wales 

procedure of the time. The founding of Battersea normal 
school was the immediate outcome of one of Shuttleworth's 
tours.^° 

The people were aroused from their apathy by the social and 
educational problems engendered by the industrial revolution. To 
this end the writings of Shenstone, Gray, Cowper, Crabbe and 
Adam Smith were undoubtedly contributory.^^ The revival of 
interest was expressed by the founding of Sunday Schools and 
later by the Monitorial System. 

It is in the " Monitorial " and its later development, the 
" Pupil-teacher " system, that we find the peculiarly English con- 
tribution to the idea of training teachers. Though the monitorial 
system is inseparably connected with the names of Dr. Andrew 
Bell (1753-1832), and Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838), neither of 
them can rightly claim the honor of priority in its invention. It 
was in active use in Elizabethan times.^^ Comenius maintained 
that one teacher will suffice for the instruction of any number of 
boys. He arranged the scholars in groups of ten with a reUable 
boy over each group. The groups he calls Decuriae and the 
captains Decuriones}^ John Brinsley, in a book entitled " Ludus 
Literarius, or the Grammar Schoole," published anonymously in 
1612, lays down the monitorial principle in the most explicit 
language.^* 



'° Shuttleworth : Four Periods of Public Education, pp. 296-310. 
"William Shenstone (1714-1763): The Schoolmistress. 
Thomas Gray (1716-1771): On a Distant Prospect of Eton College: 
also, the Alliance of Education and Government. 

William Cowper (i 731-1796): Tirocinium; or, a Review of Schools. 
George Crabbe (i 754-1832): Schools of the Borough. 
Adam Smith (i 723-1 790): Wealth of Nations, Book V. 
" " Thus, in 1524, the statutes of Manchester Grammar School provide 
that ' the high master for the time being, shall always appoint one of 
his scholars to instruct and teach in the one end of the school, all infants 
that shall come there, etc' " (Binns: A Century of Education, 1808- 
1908: p. 297). " In beginning any one branch of knowledge, the governor 
or headmaster shall ' teach the first lesson of every kind himself in the 
presence of his ushers, that they may observe his way.' " (Dury, J.: 
The Reformed School, c. 1649; quoted by Adamson: Pioneers of Modem 
Education, p. 151.) 

" Laurie; John Amos Comenius, p. 131. 

" De Montmorency: National Education and National Life, p. 207. 



History of the Training of Teachers 35 

The Monitorial System of Bell and Lancaster developed out 
of the exigencies of the situation. Both wanted teachers, and 
both were unable to supply them, so they began to train older 
and brighter boys for this office. The system demanded careful 
attention to the management of the school and consequently 
" method " attained its first real prominence in English educa- 
tion.^^ In class management the most mechanical of routine 
drills became essential. The system also led to the excessive 
use of emulation and rewards. In the accounts for 1803 we find 
that with only 217 pupils on the roll, sixteen guineas ($84) were 
spent in purchasing 5,000 toys. In all, sixty cents per head were 
spent on rewards.^^ The punishments, while not so brutal as 
aforetime, were far more degrading and humiliating. 

Lancaster began his work as a teacher in 1798. His first 
scholars were waifs and strays whom he fed and clothed as well 
as taught. His restricted premises became quite inadequate for 
the increasing crowds of children, and the school was twice re- 
moved. Its final site was in Borough Road — a place that has 
played the most important of roles in the training of teachers 
in England. The school increased at a greater rate than the 
subscriptions, and Lancaster, in his desire for economy, was led 
to utilize the services of the elder scholars as assistants. These 
he called monitors, and there is abundant evidence that training 
was given from 1805 onwards. "At this time (1805) the sum 
of i400 was raised in donations, as a capital for training school- 
masters by boarding youths for that purpose."^^ In the balance 
sheet for 181 1 we find the following items: "Board of 
those training for schoolmasters and servants of the Institution 
£iii9-6s.-id. ; clothing of lads training for schoolmasters £293- 
l6s.-9d." Such large sums indicate that the training at this 
time was conducted on a large scale. 

Lancaster's early educational efforts were financed by his co- 
religionists — the Quakers. Subscriptions from various mem- 



" In the literature of school method the English were early in the 
field. Roger Ascham's Scholemaster, written 1563-4 and first published 
in 1 57 1, though chiefly concerned with classical training, discusses and 
promulgates principles that are applicable to all subjects. For this he 
has been called the Father of School Method. 

"Lancaster's Improvements, 3rd ed., p. 16. 

*' Report of Progress, 1 798-1 808, p. 4. 



36 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

bers of the Royal Family were received after Lancaster's inter- 
view with the King in 1805. But the system needed a firmer 
foundation and so the Royal Lancasterian Society was founded 
in 1808. Lancaster was an improvident, jealous and suspicious 
reformer — a type of man who could not possibly work amicably 
with a committee. The strained relations almost reached a 
breaking point in 1814 when the committee changed the name 
of the society to the " British and Foreign School Society," but 
Lancaster did not actually sever his connection with the society 
till 1818. The work of the society was continued without him. 
In 1818 he sailed for America where for twenty years he worked 
for the establishment of Lancasterian schools. He met his death 
in a carriage accident in New York City in 1838.^^ 

Dr. Bell, the other exponent of the monitorial system, was just 
as extravagantly vain of his achievement as Lancaster, but he 
was more prudent and cautious. His career was varied but was 
uniformly successful. From 1789 to 1796 he was superintendent 
of the Military Male Orphan Asylum at Madras, in which insti- 
tution he introduced monitorial instruction. On his return to 
England he published an account of his experiment in India.^^ 
Lancaster obtained a copy of the work and received great bene- 
fit from it. In his " Improvements " he admits his indebtedness. 

Something akin to a friendship seems to have existed between 
Bell and Lancaster during the early years of the century, but 
this seems to have been destroyed by the meddlesome interfer- 
ence of Mrs. Trimmer in 1805.^'' From this time on, mutual 
jealousy was prominent. Differences of religious belief accen- 
tuated the ill-feeling. Bell was a minister of the Church of Eng- 
land ; Lancaster was a Quaker. In Lancasterian schools the 
Bible was read without note or comment; in schools under 
Church control doctrinal teaching was considered essential. The 
rapid success of the Lancasterian system led to a revival of the 
zeal of the Church in the matter of education. Churchmen be- 
came unanimous in their desire for greater control of the Church 



" Salmon David. Joseph Lancaster. Binns, H. B. A century of 
education 180 8-1 90 8. 

" An experiment in education made at the Male Asylum at Madras 
suggesting a system by which a school or family may teach itself under 
the superintendence of the Master or the Parent. 

'" Southey: Life of Bell, I, p. 132. 



History of the Training of Teachers 3 7 

over the schooling of the masses of the population. At a meet- 
ing of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge 
in 181 1 it was resolved to found an organization to be known as 
" The National Society for the education of the poor in the prin- 
ciples of the established Church throughout England and Wales." 
The society was incorporated in 1817. The founding of this 
society marks the beginning of the religious difficulties, still un- 
settled, which, more than anything else, have prevented a healthy 
and normal development of English elementary education. 

The work of the National Society closely paralleled the work 
of its rival. The committee quickly established a large school, 
first on Holborn Hill, later in Grays Inn Lane, where a thousand 
children could be taught and a number of teachers trained. As 
in the Lancasterian system both men and women were trained to 
be teachers. Subscriptions came in freely and an extensive sys- 
tem of elementary schools (termed national schools) with 
teachers trained at the central school in London, came into being. 
The report for 181 5 states that " the society retained in its pay 
ten masters in the central school who were sent to the assistance 
of persons interesting themselves in the formation and re- 
modelling of schools upon the National system."^^ 

The most successful development of the monitorial system 
took place in Ireland. This was in connection with the work of 
the famous Kildare Place Society (1811-1831). This society, 
founded in 181 1, was managed by an influential committee of 
twenty-one members (raised to thirty-one in 181 5) and had for 
its object " the fitting up of schoolhouses upon a suitable plan 
and for providing teachers properly qualified, and also for the 
procuring of books and other necessary articles." The society 
was poor at first, and the monitorial system of Lancaster strongly 
appealed to the committee because of its economical working. 
Further, the religious teaching in Lancasterian schools was of a 
nature that had worked successfully in Ireland from 1786. The 
committee, therefore, made the reading of the Bible without 
doctrinal explanation a fundamental principle of the society. 

From its inception the society attempted to train teachers. In 
order to acquire Lancasterian methods the society invited John 
Veevers, a trusted lieutenant of Lancaster, to take charge of the 



'' Gregory: National Education, p. 23. 



38 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

training of teachers. They did not, however, slavishly adopt 
Lancasterian methods but critically observed Veevers to find in 
what particulars his methods were superior to those previously 
employed. Funds running short, the society asked Parliament- 
ary aid to carry on its work. Parliament responded by grant- 
mg £6,980 ($34,9CX)) to build a model school at Kildare Place ^* 
In this way the English custom of experimenting with measures 
in Ireland before adopting them permanently in England, now 
extended to many other fields, was inaugurated. The Parlia- 
mentary grant became annual and increased from £9,653 in 1815 
to £30,000 in 1825. In 1819 an extension of premises became 
necessary and Kildare Place No. 2 was estabhshed. A third ex- 
tension took place in 1824, when the training of mistresses was 
undertaken, (^ne hundred and fifty masters and sixty mistresses 
were turned out annually and by 1831, when Parliamentary 
grants were discontinued, 1908 men and 500 women had been 
trained. 

The customary method of extending educational facilities at 
that time was to build a school, appoint a master, and then send 
him to be trained. His period of training at Kildare Place was 
of six weeks duration ; shorter if he were brilliant, longer if no 
special aptitude were shown, but in all cases the maximum period 
was four months. The training was for the most part given in 
the school, although the daily lectures by the superintendent 
early in the morning, and the individual tuition given from 6-8 
o'clock in the evening, undoubtedly contributed to the same end. 
The communal dormitory life must have been highly beneficial 
to country teachers from outlying districts. The work in the 
school, which ran from 10 A.M. to 3 P.M., consisted of (i) 
observation and the keeping of the various records and registers ; 
(2) actual practice in the management of the individual classes 
or of the whole school. Besides drill in the teaching of ordinary 
school subjects, e. g., along Pestalozzian lines in arithmetic, the 
student-teachers were expected to work out special local difficul- 
ties, to draw plans for new schools and to make lists of school 
requisites. The training of the women teachers was of a similar 
nature except that cookery and laundry work were compulsory 
subjects. The cost for women was always greater than for men. 



" Sir Robert Peel was largely instrumental in obtaining the grant. 



History of the Training of Teachers 39 

Tlie reverse of tliis is true at the present time. At the end of 
the training i)erio(l the stndent-teachers were given a very prac- 
tical examination and, if successful, were granted certificates. 

Other features of the society's work were the system of in- 
spection, the publication of cheap books, and the distribution of 
grants. The publication of books on a large scale began in 1816 
when the sum of i6,(X)0 ($30,000) was granted by Parliament 
to carry on the work of the Cheap Book Society. One hundred 
pounds was paid to Lancaster for the right of publication of his 
works. The society took great care not to publish works that 
would offend religious susceptibilities. With one minor excep- 
tion they were successful in their efforts. In all, 1,464,817 books 
were printed, many of which found their way to England and 
Scotland and even to America.^^ The books were sold at re- 
duced rates. The " Schoolmaster's Manual," the Kildare Place 
parallel of the " Manual of Primary Instruction " by the British 
Society, was probably the most important work. It was planned 
in 1813 but was not completed until 1825. The methods advo- 
cated are wider in scope and not so mechanical as those of the 
British Society. Other educational publications of the society 
were a reading and a spelling book, both consisting of tablets 
for class instruction, an extempore and a dictating arithmetic, 
Pestalozzi's^* arithmetic tables, the principles of plane geometry 
and trigonometry, and treatises on mechanics and general geogra- 
phy. Lending libraries were encouraged. There was also a 
school library attached to every Kildare Place School. The sys- 
tem of inspection began with the visitation tours of schools by 
Veevers during his vacation ; later, when the system of gratui- 
ties to teachers, ranging from £2-£io (majority £5) according to 
the excellence of their schools, was instituted, an inspectorial 
staff of eight persons was formed. These inspectors were propa- 
gandist missionaries and did a noble work under conditions of 
great hardship. Other grants by the society were made to pay 
the travelling expenses and part cost of the student-teacher's 
training. 

It was on the rock of religious teaching that the system of 
teacher training, which attracted visitors from all parts of 



" Hansard, 3rd series, vol. VI, p. 1249. 

^ Pestalozzi and Fellenberg were honorary members of the societ5r» 



40 - Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Europe, came to grief. Ireland was peopled with Roman 
Catholics, who demanded distinctive religious teaching, and 
charged the society with proselytism. ,When the society stood 
firm, they set up opposition schools. The result of this was 
the commission of Irish education inquiry in 1824. The report 
of the commission endorsed the reasonableness of the Catholic 
hostility to the society although it refuted the charges of prose- 
lytism and heartily commended the system for its training of 
teachers. In 1831 the Hon. E. G. Stanley definitely announced 
that it was the intention of the government to withdraw grants 
and so put an end to the society as a means for state education.-^ 
The work was taken over by the Board of Commissioners of 
National Education. In this way 'ended a very praiseworthy 
attempt to found a national system of education, the basis of 
which was to be an army of trained teachers. ^*^ 

The development of teacher training in Scotland was different 
from that in England and Ireland. England and Ireland had 
adopted the monitorial system in its entirety. Scotland, on the 
other hand, had leanings towards the Infant School System. 
This was probably a result, although the connection is rather 
difficult to trace, of Robert Owen's experiment with the educa- 
tion of child-workers at his New Lanark mills. -^ Certain it is 
that Henry Brougham in 1818 took James Buchanan, the simple 
weaver who was so successful as an infant school teacher, from 
his post as superintendent at New Lanark to be head of the new 
school at Westminster.^* Samuel Wilderspin was the next in 
line of succession. He certainly obtained his inspiration and 
much of his knowledge from Buchanan and Owen, although, 
later in life, when in the zenith of his power, he repudiated any 
indebtedness.^^ David Stow, the founder of the system of 
teacher training in Scotland, was a disciple of Wilderspin's. In 
a memorandum to the Committee of Council in 1840 on the 
origin of the Glasgow^ Educational Society Stow wrote " The 
Origin of our society was for the establishment of infant schools 

" Hansard, 3rd series, vol. VI, p. 1249. 

''The material for the above was largely obtained from Moore: An 
Unwritten Chapter in the History of Education. 
'' Owen: New View Society. 3rd Essay. 
'* Brougham: In House of Commons, Dec, 1819. 
"Wilderspin: Early discipline, p. 331. 



History of the Training of Teachers 41 

and training infant schoolmasters, not precisely upon Wilder- 
spin's plan, but we got him down at our expense to train our 
first and present master of our infant department (Mr. Caughie) 
in his mode of physical training. * * * The model infant 
school was established in 1826-7, and from its commencement 
was intended as a training school for teachers and now, viz., in 
1832-3, both the infant and juvenile schools are not only models 
but schools for training schoolmasters, and have trained a con- 
siderable number of teachers for infant and juvenile schools of 
all sects for home and foreign parts. "^** Prior to 1831 the school 
was attended solely by children under six years of age. In that 
year another school was added for children above that age. By 
1840, 505 teachers had been trained in the institution.^^ 

In Edinburgh the General Assembly of the Church of Scot- 
land had endeavored to train teachers from 1825 onwards. Their 
model school in Tron Parish was devoted to the education of 
poor children and to the training of an inferior type of school- 
master. In 1835 the work was extended to include all teachers 
willing to profit by the facilities afforded. 

When the government, in 1839, through the agency of the 
Committee of Council on Education, began to distribute grants 
in aid of normal schools both the Glasgow Educational Society 
and the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland hastened 
to apply for financial assistance. After a careful consideration 
of the two cases, the committee concluded that it would best 
benefit education if the work of the two societies were consoli- 
dated. They, therefore, granted the sum of £10,000 ($50,- 
000) to the General Assembly on condition that they would 
assume all obligations for the continuance of the educational 
work of the Glasgow Educational Society.^- The offer was 
accepted on May 27th, 1842. 

It has been previously pointed out that the first government 
grants for education were made in 181 5 to aid the work* of the 
Kildare Place Society in Ireland. The Reform Bill of 1832 
paved the way for an extension of the principle of government 
support for education to the countries of Great Britain. Ac- 
cordingly, in 1833, a grant of £20,000 ($100,000) was made for 

'" Minutes of Committee of Council, 1841-42, p. 6. 
^' Ibid., 1841-42, p. 9. 
''Ibid., 1841-42, pp. 29-58. 



42 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

purposes of education. The money was to be devoted to the 
erection of school-houses in Great Britain. Finding a serious 
lack of competent teachers the government attempted to remedy 
the matter by voting a sum of £10,000 ($50,000) for the erec- 
tion of model schools. Although the money was voted in 1835, 
it was not until the formation of the Committee of Council on 
Education in 1839, to administer the moneys voted by the Com- 
mons, that any action was taken. 

From 18 jp onwards: The formation of the Committee of 
Council in 1839, to frustrate the obscurantist tactics of Parlia- 
ment against the formation of a central authority, marks the 
beginning of a new era in English education. The Committee 
had for its first secretary the enlightened Dr. Jas. Kay (after- 
wards Sir Jas. Kay Shuttleworth) to whom much of the early 
success must be attributed. One of the first things dealt with 
was the question of the national normal school. The Committee 
was created on April 19th, 1839. On April 13th an elaborate 
scheme for the guidance of the committee in the question of 
a national normal school was presented. ^^ The scheme was to 
include a normal school where students in training could reside, 
a model boarding school for 450 children, and a day school for 
250 children in which the student-teachers could realize the 
application of the best methods of instruction. Circumstances, 
however, were too strong for the Committee. The two rival 
societies, the National Society and the British and Foreign School 
Society, were so strongly entrenched that their hostility to the 
proposed government plan was sufficient to make it abortive. 
Consequently, the committee recommended " that the sum of ten 
thousand pounds, granted by Parliament in 1835 towards the 
erection of normal or model schools, be given in equal propor- 
tions to the National Society and the British and Foreign School 
Society."^* The right of inspection was retained " in order to 
secure a conformity to the regulations and discipline established 
in the several schools, with such improvements as may from time 
to time be suggested by the committee." 

About this time a new principle was introduced into the edu- 
cation of the English school-master. The monitorial system had 



^' Shuttleworth : Four periods of Education, p. 1 79. 
^* Minute of Committee of Council, June 3rd, 1839. 



History of the Training of Teachers 43 

been tried and found wanting, for it proved impossible to retain 
monitors long enough to enable them to become proficient. The 
idea was then conceived of giving them greater permanency of 
position, with correspondingly greater prestige, by binding them 
apprentice to the school-master for a period of years. The ap- 
prenticeship in the main was to give a practical training. The theo- 
retical training along professional lines was postponed to the 
post-apprenticeship period in the newly established training 
colleges. This is the first differentiation between the preUminary 
training and the more formal professional training of a teacher. 
These two phases will be kept separate in the discussion which 
follows, although in actual practice it must be remembered there 
is an organic connection between them. The preliminary train- 
ing will be dealt with first. 

The first utilization of an apprentice or pupil-teacher seems 
to have occurred in a Norfolk workhouse school in the late 
thirties.^^ Kay Shuttleworth as an assistant Poor Law Commis- 
sioner had also trained monitors who expected to make teach- 
ing a profession. The actual scheme, however, was borrowed 
from Holland. During a visit to Holland in 1837, wShuttleworth 
had found a system of apprenticeship in operation. The appren- 
tices were known as pupil-teachers. The original intention in 
the English system was to select monitors from the best pupils 
in the classes, and pupil-teachers from the best of these monitors. 
The following description of a pupil-teacher was given in the 
Minutes of the Committee of Council, 1839-40: 

"A young teacher, in the first instance introduced to the notice 
of the master by his good qualities, as one of the best instructed 
and most intelligent of the children ; whose attainments and skill 
are full of promise ; and who, having consented to remain at a low 
rate of remuneration in the school, is further rewarded by being 
enabled to avail himself of the opportunities afforded him for 
attaining practical skill in the art of teaching, by daily practice 
in the school, and by the gratuitous superintendence of his read- 
ing and studies by the master, from whom he receives lessons on 
technical subjects of school instruction every evening." 

Although the scheme outlined by the Committee of Council in 
1839 worked fairly successfully, it was really the demand on the 
part of the rapidly increasing training colleges for students with 

" Shuttleworth: Four Periods of Education, p. 287. 



44 - Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

better previous training, that led to the minutes of 1846 which 
confirmed England in her pupil-teacher policy to the end of the 
century. These minutes provided for the apprenticeship of the 
most deserving and proficient pupils from the age of 13 to that 
of 18. One pupil-teacher was allowed for each twenty-five 
scholars in the school but not more than four could be appren- 
ticed to one headmaster at the same time. The headmaster was 
to instruct the apprentices not less than seven and one-half 
hours per week, and was to receive for his services £3 increment 
of salary for each pupil-teacher under his charge. The pupil- 
teacher was to receive directly from the government a stipend 
increasing from £10 ($50) at the close of the first year to £20 
($100) at the close of the fifth year of his apprenticeship. At 
the end of each year the pupil-teacher was to be examined by 
one of her Majesty's inspectors in the course of instruction, the 
subjects of which were to be enumerated in the regulations. At 
the completion of the course the pupil-teacher was to receive a 
certificate stating that he had completed his apprenticeship. The 
pupil-teacher was expected to continue his training at one of the 
normal schools or training colleges as they were afterwards called. 
Since the pupil-teacher was usually recruited from the ranks of 
the workers it was necessary to give him financial aid to enable 
him to meet the expenses of training. This was secured by 
making all pupil-teachers who had successfully completed their 
apprenticeships eligible competitors in the examinations for 
" Queen's Scholarships." The successful candidates received per- 
sonally from £20 to £25 ($ioo-$i25) during their residence in 
a training college. In this way the government hoped to get a 
continuous succession to training colleges of candidates having 
much higher attainments and greater skill and energy than those 
who had hitherto entered them.^® 

The hopes of the government were not disappointed. In spite 
of a more discriminating selection on the part of inspectors, the 
numbers of pupil-teachers increased so rapidly that no small 
difficulty was experienced in financing the scheme. In 1848 there 
were 200 pupil-teachers; in 1861, when the Newcastle Commis- 
sion (1858-1861) reported, there were 13,871." Certain difR- 

^' Shuttle-worth: Four Periods of Public Education: 3rd period, chap. 
III. Board of Education: Report on Training of Pupil-teachers, p. 7,, 
^' Report on the Training of Pupil-teachers, p. 5. 



History of the Training of Teachers 45 

culties, caused by differences in values in town and coun- 
try districts, arose. To remedy these, the Newcastle Commission 
recommended that the existing system of grants should be abol- 
ished and replaced by a capitation grant. Lowe's revised code 
carried out these proposals and based the grants on the results 
of individual examinations of the pupils in reading, writing and 
arithmetic. The code also destroyed the system of apprentice- 
ship of the pupil-teacher to the headmaster of the school, and 
substituted in its place an agreement between the pupil-teacher 
and managers terminable on either side at six months' notice.^^ 

The results of the revised code were most injurious to the 
office of pupil-teacher. The master had now nothing to gain or 
lose by the success or failure of an apprentice. The new system 
of grants caused a reduction in amount of salaries, for these 
were now fixed by an agreement between the pupil-teacher and 
the managers of the schools. Consequently, a serious decline 
both in the numbers and the attainments of pupil-teachers took 
place. The numbers declined from 13,871 in 1861 to 8,866 in 
1866. This state of affairs caused a select committee of the 
House of Commons to be formed to investigate the matter. This 
committee, in 1867 recommended (Mr. Corry's Minutes) that 
an additional grant be given to schools having a strengthened 
staff, part of which might be composed of pupil-teachers. The 
recommendation was incorporated in the codes from 1 868-1 871. 
The immediate effect was to increase the number of pupil-teach- 
ers. There were 11,031 in 1868 and 14,612 in 1870.^'' 

The history of the pupil-teacher system from the great elemen- 
tary education Act of 1870 onwards is one of the gradual decay 
of the apprenticeship idea coupled with the growing recognition 
of the need for a wider academic preparation. The growth of 
" centre classes " where the pupil-teachers from a local area were 
collected and instructed was the largest factor in the decline of 
the idea of apprenticeship. The first of these central classes 
was in 1874. The idea spread rapidly and was even supported 
by that most conflicting report — the report of the Cross Commis- 
sion in 1888. Out of the centre classes pupil-teacher centres de- 
veloped in the late nineties. Few of them are left — the pre- 
liminary training of the teacher is now given in secondary 

'' Report on the Training of Pupil-teachers, pp. 5-6. 
" Ibid, p. 6. 



46 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

schools. The breakdown was also aided by the gradual increase 
in the minimum age of admission to pupil-teachership. In 1878, 
the age was raised from 13 to 14 years; in 1896, to 15 except 
in country districts where it remained at 14 ; while at the present 
time the age is 16 for urban, and 15 for rural districts. The 
length of the pupil-teacher service has correspondingly de- 
creased. The usual period from 1878 was four years. In 1900 
it was reduced to three years ; in 1903 to two years, reducible 
to a single year in special cases.*" 

The need for wider academic training of the prospective 
teacher has long been realized. Matthew Arnold reporting as 
far back as 1852 had stated : — " I have been much struck in 
examining them (i.e. the pupil-teachers) at the close of their 
apprenticeship, when they are generally at least eighteen years 
old, with the utter disproportion between the great amount of 
positive information and the low degree of mental culture and 
intelligence which they exhibit."*^ The various remedial meas- 
ures did not seem to overcome the inherent difficulties in a system 
which tried to combine salaried employment with instruction 
during the receptive period of adolescence. The pupil-teacher 
was too immature to teach effectively, too much engrossed with 
economic employment to do justice to his studies. The minority 
report of the Cross Commission, 1888, stated that some of the 
bad results of the system would be eliminated if there were a 
more prolonged period of preliminary education before students 
were entrusted with the management of classes. A departmental 
commission sitting from 1896 — 1898 confirmed this view. They 
stated " we think it extremely desirable that all intending teachers 
should pass through a secondary school for the completion of 
their ordinary education. * * * fj^g preparation of young 
teachers can and ought to approximate more closely to the more 
liberal methods and studies which would help bring them to the 
same level as the best scholars of the secondary schools."*^ This 
committee also looked forward to the time when the centres 
would be converted into well staffed and properly equipped sec- 
ondary schools " where, although perhaps intending teachers may 
be in the majority, they will have ampler time for their studies 

*° Report on the Training of Pupil-teachers, pp. 6-18. 

" Ibid, p. 7. 

*' Ibid, pp. 11-12. 



History of the Training of Teachers 47 

and will be instructed side by side with pupils who have other 
careers in view."*^ Subsequent legislation has been designed 
to carry out these proposals. The Education Act of 1902 paved 
the way by placing all education in a given area under one local 
authority. The regulations for the preliminary education of 
teachers, first issued in 1903, were framed (i) to carry on as 
far as possible the academic education during pupil-teachership, 
and (2) to defer employment in public elementary schools to a 
later age than had previously been the case in order to facilitate 
the preliminary education of future teachers. Intending teachers 
were, therefore, instructed from 14 to 16 either in secondary 
schools or in preparatory classes attached to pupil-teacher cen- 
tres. A re-organized system of grants to carry out the scheme 
effectively was also instituted.** 

In recent years, from 1905 onwards, the pupil-teacher system 
has been rapidly replaced by the bursar and student-teacher sys- 
tems. The system which is described in chapter III is intended 
to provide intending teachers with a secondary education up to 
16 or 17 years of age, followed by one year of practical teaching 
in an elementary school before entrance into a training college 
is gained. The student-teacher year may, however, be omitted. 

In the previous section the legislative development of educa- 
tion of the teacher prior to his entry into a training college has 
been traced. The present section deals with the development of 
the training colleges themselves. 

The monitorial system had provided a few imperfectly trained 
teachers from the year 1805. In 1836 the Home and Colonial 
Society established a training college for female teachers in 
Gray's Inn Road. This school is still in existence although it 
was removed to Wood Green in 1903. Another famous private 
effort was the opening of Battersea Training School for train- 
ing teachers for pauper children by Shuttleworth and Tufnell 
early in 1840. 

The school at Battersea is famous in educational history for 
two reasons (i) because it was established by the private liber- 
ality of two persons to test whether it was possible to train men 
of lowly origin to have noble ideas and right enthusiasms (Shut- 

^^ Report on the Training of Pupil-teachers, p. 12. 
** Regulations for the Preliminary Education of Teachers 1903. Prefa- 
tory Memorandum. 



48 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

tleworth acted as superintendent of the institution for a number 
of years) ; and (2) because it represents one of the first attempts 
to found in England a school based on a continental model. 
Shuttleworth's introduction of the Dutch pupil-teacher system 
has already been mentioned. The model for the Battersea Train- 
ing School was Vehrli's school at Kruitzlingen. In a report of 
his continental tour Shuttleworth states : " We were greatly 
charmed in this school by the union of comparatively high in- 
tellectual attainments among the scholars with the utmost sim- 
plicity of life and cheerfulness in the humblest menial labor. 
* * * We therefore cherish the hope that on this plan a normal 
school might be founded for the training of teachers, to whom 
the schools for pauper children might be usefully committed."*^ 
The life at the school was studiously simple. A large part of 
every day was employed in manual labor in the garden, which 
was brought into cultivation by the students and provided most 
of the vegetables consumed in the school. Only one servant — 
a cook — was provided. The whole of the work of the school was 
directed towards one end — the training of character. Generous 
support was accorded by the government, but the founders be- 
ing unwilling to accept the growing responsibility for the con- 
tinuance of the school and finding suitable openings for their 
graduates only with great difficulty, finally turned it over to the 
National Society in 1843.*® 

A noteworthy feature of the early development of training 
schools is the part played by the religious denominations and the 
educational societies. It will be remembered that the annual 
government grants, during the early years, were given to the two 
societies for the building of schools on condition that an equal 
amount was raised locally. These promoted great building activ- 
ity and as such were beneficial ; but, unfortunately, they also 
established denominational control over the training of teachers. 
The Church of England was especially active. Not only the Na- 
tional Society, but the Society for the Promotion of Christian 
Knowledge also expended large sums for the erection and mainte- 



^^ Shuttleworth: Four Periods of Education, p. 307-8. 
*' Minutes of the Committee of Council: 1842-3, p. 200. 

Newcastle Commission Report: I, pp. 108-149. 

Shuttleworth: Four Periods of Education, p. 429. 



History of the Training of Teachers 49 

nance of training colieges.*^ In addition, Diocesan Boards of 
Education were founded by members of the Church of England 
to meet the government requirements as to local support. The 
British and Foreign Society confined its efforts to rebuilding 
Borough Road. The new buildings were opened in 1842. 

The difficulties of the early normal schools were very great. 
The range of ages of the students was very wide. At Battersea 
the ages ranged from 14 to 42; although the minimum age of 
entrance was raised to 16 when it was taken over by the National 
Society in 1843. The older students could only make a short 
stay. But the greatest difficulty experienced was the lamentable 
weakness of the previous education of the students. Some of 
them could barely read or write. The following report (abbrevi- 
ated) for 1841 of the Glasgow Normal Seminary by John Gib- 
son, H.M.I., throws much light upon the working of one of the 
better normal schools at that time: 

The minimum period of attendance is six months ; it has on 
the average extended to between eight and nine months. Course 
of study embraces the following branches : — physics ; natural his- 
tory ; geography ; arithmetic and algebra ; English grammar and 
sacred history ; elocution ; music and gymnastics. 

Sixteen and one-half out of the forty hours they are in at- 
tendance at the seminary are spent in receiving instruction. The 
remainder of the time is employed in training them to skill in 
the art of teaching, and in communicating to them enlarged and 
enlightened views on the general subjects of education. The 
expedients adopted for these purposes are four: (i) Observa- 
tion of the model schools; (2) Giving lessons in the hall, both 
in the gallery and in classes; (3) Giving Bible lessons to each 
other; and (4) Public criticism. 

Two months are spent in observation. The next two months 
in teaching under the direction of the head of the department in 
which the student may happen to be placed. During the last 
months he takes a very active part in teaching and in giving 
criticism lessons. In the criticism lessons " the students sit as 
spectators and auditors, critically observing and jotting down, 
for future use, in their note books, any peculiarities or defects 
of manner (such as awkwardness of movement, monotony of 



*' " Before 1870 Church people expended ;,£i 94,085 on erecting train- 
ing colleges, and ;^94,8io in maintaining them; since that date they 
have had to furnish ;£94,8io for the first of these objects, and ;C327,39i 
for the second." Gregory: Elementary Education, p. 58. See also 
Financial Return for training colleges from foundation, July, 1906. 



5© Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

tone, want of animation, want of success in securing and riveting 
the attention), and at the same time watching any inaccuracy, or 
deficiency, or superfluity of statement ; any inf ehcity of illustra- 
tion and analogy ; and inaptitude in eliciting information of which 
the children had been previously in possession ; in short, any want 
of skill in communicating and vividly presenting to the minds 
that of which they had been ignorant. 

Four such lessons are given, each occupying fifteen minutes. 
The breaks between them are filled in by singing of a hymn 
followed by practical exercise. 

In the Bible lesson to each other, the students are taught by 
one of their number as if they were six or seven years old. The 
answers to the simple questions put by the teachers are supposed 
to be of such a nature that a child of six or seven would naturally 
give. He concludes the report by stating that the impression 
left was " that the students had been led to attach an undue 
prominence to them (i. e. the criticism lessons). This convic- 
tion was deepened when I came to the observation of the manner 
in which their labors in the model school were conducted."** 

The above report is typical of a score of others given in the 
early minutes of the committee. 

To remove some of these difficulties the minutes of 1846 were 
passed. These minutes, through the institution of a government 
supported apprenticeship, provided a continuous supply of fairly 
well educated candidates for the training schools. They also 
provided for most of the personal expenses of the students dur- 
ing his three years' residence in college.*^ To the training col- 
leges grants of £20 to i^p ($ioo-$i5o) were made on account of 
Queen's Scholars for each year of their training. The college 
deficit was made up by students' fees, endowments and voluntary 
contributions. At the end of the college course, certificates, 
divided into three classes, were granted. This certificate entitled 
the holder to an augmentation of salary ranging from ii5 to £30 
($75-$i5o) on condition that the trustees and managers of the 
school over which he had charge provided him with a house 
rent free, and with a further salary equal to twice the amount 
of the grant. Mistresses earned grants two-thirds the amount 
of those awarded to a master.^" All grants to teachers were made 

** Minutes of Committee of Council, 1 840-1, p. 412. 

*• This could be reduced to two years in the case of exceptionally well 
prepared Queen's Scholars. At the present time the normal period is 
two years. 

'"Minutes of Committee of Council, 1846, I, pp. 11-12. 



History of the Training of Teachers 51 

by Post Office Orders, payable personally to them.^^ A pension 
system was also inaugurated. Teachers were thus civil servants in 
a very real sense from the time of the 1846 minutes to that of the 
revised code of 1861. 

The minutes of 1846 were the immediate cause of a rapid ad- 
vance in the qualifications of teachers. The curriculum of the 
training was broadened to include religious knowledge, reading, 
writing, arithmetic, geography, history, drawing, vocal music and 
school management. The syllabus for female candidates included 
compulsory domestic economy. The underlying theory of in- 
struction of the training schools seems to have been an extended 
and advanced study of the various branches taught in the ele- 
mentary schools at that time.^- Instruction in the art of teach- 
ing was given by means of lectures, and by actual practice in 
the practising and model schools. In some colleges the two 
schools were combined ; in others they were distinct. 

According to the minutes of 1846 the attendance at a normal 
school was a necessary condition of certification. In 1847 ^ 
retrograde step was made. Certification solely by examination 
was introduced^^ and still holds the field. By this a teacher 
could become certified, though untrained, and without attending a 
normal school. The first external examinations were held in 1848. 
They soon became popular for the new certificates carried with 
them the augmentation of salary created by the 1846 minutes. 

The progress in the provision of facilities for the training of 
teachers during the first twenty years of the Committee of Coun- 
cil is shown by the following table: 

" Balfour: Educational Systems, p. 9. 

" Newcastle Commission Report, I, pp. 11 5-1 2 6. 

" Vide Minute, July 23, 1853, sec. 3. 



52 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

TABLE I 







Date of 








Date of 


earliest 


Religious 


Number 


Training 


estab- 


govern- 


denomination 


of 


colleges 


lish- 


ment 


with which 


students 




ment 


grants for 
premises 


connected 


in 1858 



Chester 

Chichester 

Lichfield 

Exeter 

Winchester 

Battersea 

Chelsea (St. Mark's). 

Durham 

Carnarvon 

Carmarthen 

Metropolitan 

Saltley 

Hammersmith 

Culham 

Bangor 



(A) Colleges for Males Only 

Church of Engl. 



Peterborough 



(B) 



Gray's Inn Road . 



Salisbury 

Norwich 

Whitelands 

Brighton 

Warrington 

Truro 

Derby 

Bishop's Stortford . 
Bristol, Gloucester 

and Oxford 

Durham 

Liverpool 

St. Leonards-on-sea . 



1839 
1839 
1839 
1839 
1839 
1840 

1841 
1841 
1846 
1848 
1849 
1852 
1852 
1853 



COLLEG 
1836 

1840 
1840 
184I 
1842 
1844 
1849 
1851 
1852 

1853 
1858 



1843 
1851 

1854 

nil. 

1842 

1847 
1858 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1852 
1853 
1857 



(D) 
(D) 



(D) 
(D) 

(N. S.) 

(N. S.) 

(D) 

(N. S.) 



(D) 

Roman Catholic. . . . 
Church of Engl. (D) 
Non -denominational 

(B. and F.) 

Church of Engl. (D) 



ES FOR Females Only 
1856 



1852 

1854 
1851 

1855 
1854 

1859 
1851 

1854 
1854 



Church ^of Engl. (H. 

and C.) 

Church of Engl. (D) 
(D) 

(D) 
(D) 
(D) 
(D) 

(D) 



Roman Catholic. 



(D) 
(D) 



(C) 
Borough Road . 



Colleges for Both Males and Females 



York and Ripon. 

Cheltenham 

Westminster. . . . 
Homerton 



1846 



1846 
1850 
1852 



Non -denominational 

(B. and F.) 

Church of Engl 



Wesleyan 

Congregational 



53 
17 

44 

2,7 

109 

105 
47 
36 
36 
72 

59 
46 
56' 



15 



172 
60 

39 
106 

45 
90 
21 

40 
57 

69 
37 
51 
31 



130 
109 

155 
102 



D=Diocesan; N. S.=National Society; B. and F.=British and foreign j 
H. and C.=Home and Colonial. 



History of the Training of Teachers 53 

It will be seen from the table that 35 training colleges with 
an average attendance of 2965 were in existence in 1858. 

The revised code made the teaching profession unpopular and 
during the next eight years training colleges passed through a 
very anxious period. With the Elementary Education Act of 
1870 a revival took place but the energies of the country seemed 
to be absorbed in the task of providing the necessary elementary 
schools. From 1862 to 1890, in spite of a pressing necessity for 
new colleges only eight, viz.: Southlands (1872), Darlington 
(1872), Swansea (1872), Oxford (1873), North Kensington 
Tottenham (1878), Saffron Walden (1884) and Edge Hill 
(1885), were established.^* 

In some fields, notably in the extension of higher education 
for women, this same period was far from unproductive. The 
report of the Schools Inquiry Commission in 1870 brought be- 
fore the public the unsatisfactory condition of the education of 
girls of the middle and upper classes. In 1872, the year of in- 
corporation of Girton College, Cambridge, the Girls' Public Day 
School Trust was founded. Newnham Hall was opened in 1875 > 
Lady Margaret Hall and Somerville Hall, Oxford, in 1878 and 
1879 respectively. The opening up of the older universities was 
followed by a demand for professional training of secondary 
school teachers. In 1878, the Maria Grey College was estab- 
lished in Brondesbury. This was followed by the Cambridge 
Training College for women teachers, and the secondary train- 
ing department of the Ladies' College, Cheltenham, both in 1885. 

The growth of a virile university life in the provincial towns 
drew public attention to the necessity of extending facilities for 
university education to the primary teacher. The association of 
the primary teacher with college students pursuing different cur- 
ricula in the classroom and elsewhere, his contact with the 
teachers of wide scholarship could not fail to react beneficially 
upon the work of the elementary school. The Cross Commis- 
sion in 1888 recommended the introduction of Day Training 
Colleges^'' attached to some university or college of university 
rank. Their recommendations, not without serious misgivings, 
were embodied in the code of 1890. These colleges are unde- 

** Parliamentary Financial Return for Training College? from Foun- 
dation: 1906. 

"Final Report, p. 100. 



54 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

nominational and are consequently free from the religious diffi- 
culties. The students are registered students of a university and 
pursue college courses leading to a degree. Additional lectures 
in education and the usual practice in teaching are of course 
essential. The growth of the Day Training College has been 
phenomenally rapid, as may be seen from the subjoined list: 

Birmingham 1890 London, University College 

Cardiff 1890 1892 (discontinued 1895) 

London, King's College 1890 Oxford 1892 

Manchester 1890 Bangor 1894 

Newcastle-on-Tyne 1890 Reading 1899 

Nottingham 1890 Southampton 1899 

Cambridge 1891 Exeter 1901 

Leeds 1891 London, Southampton St. 

Liverpool 1891 1902 

Bristol 1892 London, Graystoke Place 1904 

In 1890 day students were also admitted to residential col- 
leges. A further extension of the day student principle was 
made in 1906,^^ when the government decided to pay 75% of 
the cost of establishment of training colleges provided the local 
authority would raise the remainder. Previous to this the pro- 
portions paid by the central and local authorities were reversed. 
Two county authorities, London and Cheshire, and five councils 
of county boroughs, Bolton, Walsall, Portsmouth, Brighton and 
Sheffield, have availed themselves of the generous ofifer.^^ All 
these new city training colleges, for that is what they really 
amount to, approximate closely to the American type. 

The results of the day training college movement have been 
highly beneficial. They have reacted upon the residential col- 
leges, making them more liberal in character especially with re- 
gard to their curricula. In England and Wales there are now 
thirty of these colleges providing accommodations for 5,058 
students.^^ 

Other recent movements affecting the teaching profession 
which may be noted are the revival of the teachers' pension fund 

*• Regulations for the Training of Teachers, 1906. 
" N. U. T. Red Code, 1909, p. 309. 

"Statistics of Public Education in England and Wales 1907-8, pp. 
245 and 407. 



History of the Training of Teachers 55 

(discontinued by the revised code of 1862) in a more elaborate 
and comprehensive form in 1898;^^ the determination of the 
Board, in 1906, to demand that a certain proportion of the staff 
of recognized secondary schools shall in the future be trained;^" 
and the inauguration, in 1908, of a government supported scheme 
for the training of teachers for secondary schools.*^ ^ 

^° Elementary School Teachers' (superannuation) Act 1898; 61 and 62 
Vict. c. 57. 

'" Regulations for Secondary Schools 1906: Teaching Staff. 

"Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools; in Red Code 1908; 
P- 330- 



CHAPTER 111 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION OF TEACHERS 

The period of preliminary education for teachers in England 
and Wales extends to 17 or 18 years of age — the age for col- 
lege entrance. This period was formerly divided into two parts : 
(1) the elementary school period up to 13 or 14 years of age; 
and (2) the period of apprenticeship extending from 13 or 14 
to 17 or 18 years of age. The underlying idea of the apprentice- 
ship or pupil-teachership system was that a practical acquaintance 
with the routine of the schoolroom was fundamental to a i)roper 
understanding of the theoretical aspects of the teaching profes- 
sion. Not only did practice precede theory, but the practice was 
largely imitative of the master — the pupil-teacher was a learner 
of the " tricks of the trade." The newer ideal which is rapidly 
replacing the older one emphasizes the necessity of a broad sec- 
ondary education for the prospective teacher followed by prac- 
tice in teaching with adequate supervision. The laboratory 
method is thus superseding the apprenticeship method of train- 
ing.^ 

Since the secondary school plays such a large part in the pre- 
liminary cducaton of teachers, it is necessary to understand the 
distinction between an elementary and secondary school. In 
America there is a latitudinal division ; in England the division is 
longitudinal. In America the secondary school is super-imposed 
on the elementary school ; in England, so far as the ages of the 
scholars are concerned, tiicre is much overlapping. Thus sec- 
ondary education is often given in a secondary school to pupils 
of nine although the present tendency is to restrict it to scholars 
from 12 to 18 years of age. Previous to the Act of 1902. there 
was also a marked class distinction between scholars in the ele- 
mentary and secondary schools, but with the growth of municipal 
secondary schools and the bursar system of teacher training 
the line of demarcation is rapidly disappearing. 

' Dewey: Theory and Practice. 
56 



Preliminary Education of Teachers 57 

Up to twelve years of age the prospective teacher may have 
been educated either in an elementary or in a secondary (pre- 
paratory and actual) school. From twelve to sixteen years of 
age it is customary for him to attend a secondary school. The 
exceptions to this are the pupil-teachers in rural districts, the 
scholars of a hig-her elementary school, and those attending a 
preparatory pupil-teacher centre. At sixteen one of two courses 
can be followed — either to become a pupil-teacher for two years, 
or a bursar for one year. The bursar year may, or may. not, 
be followed by a year as student-teacher. The significance of 
these terms will now be indicated. 

Pupil-teacher: Pupil-teachers are " boys and girls who are re- 
ceiving (a) training in teaching in a public elementary school, 
t6gether with (b) instruction accepted by the Board under the 
official regulations."' They are selected by the local authority 
and recommended to the i'oard as suitable candidates for pupil- 
teachers. Each candidate must be healthy, of good character, 
and free from personal defects. He must also sign a declaration 
that it is his boiia fide intention to become a teacher in a public 
elementary school. He must be over sixteen but not over eigh- 
teen years of age, except in country districts where fifteen is 
the minimum age. The normal period of recognition is for two 
years although it may be reduced to one year if the candidate 
is seventeen years of age and has satisfied the Board's require- 
ments as to attendance both at a pupil-teacher centre and at an 
elementary school ; and may be increased to three years in the 
case of pupil-teachers in rural districts. Part of the time is 
spent in study, part in teaching or observation of teaching. The 
training in the art of teaching must employ from 100 to 225 
meetings^ if the period of recognition is for one year, not more 
than 450 meetings if the period of recognition is for two years, 
or not more than 675 meetings in all if the period of recognition 
is for three years. Moreover, the pupil-teacher is to be free 
from employment at least two half-days or one whole day per 
week, and provision is made to prevent the time spent in train- 
ing from being wholly absorbed by actual practice work. Each 
school employing pupil-teachers must be certified by the inspec- 

' Regulations for the Preliminary Education of Teachers: Red Code 
1909, p. 162. 
' There are two meetings per day. 



58 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

tor as suitable for training them, and no school, without special 
permission, may employ more than four pupil-teachers. Pupil- 
teachers do not count on the official staff of the school as equiva- 
lent to a number of pupils in average attendance, and their recog- 
nition may be withdrawn because of an adverse report of an 
inspector.* 

Bursar: Bursars are boys and girls attending full time at a 
secondary school who intend in the future to become elementary 
school teachers and who require financial assistance to continue 
their education. The local authority and the principal of the 
secondary school, which the bursar must have attended for at 
least two years (to be raised to three in 1910) immediately pre- 
ceding his recognition, must both endorse his candidature. The 
period of recognition is one year. An adverse report of an in- 
spector may cause the withdrawal of the recognition. Like the 
pupil-teacher, the bursar must be between 16 and 18 years of 
age, must be of good character and health and free from per- 
sonal defects, and must sign a declaration stating that it is his 
bona fide intention to become a teacher in an elementary school. 
Unlike the pupil-teacher, he does not divide his time between 
training and study, but spends the whole of his year as a recog- 
nized pupil of a secondary school. If he has not passed previ- 
ously an examination qualifying for entrance into a training col- 
lege, he pursues a course of study with that end in view. He 
pays no fees and in most cases receives maintenance^ and travel- 
ling allowances from the local authority. At the end of his 
period of recognition he may remain at the secondary school, 
enter a training college, or become a student-teacher." 

Student-teacher: Student-teachers are boys and girls of seven- 
teen years of age and over, of good character and health, and 
of freedom from personal defects, who have either been bursars, 
or students in regular attendance at a secondary school during 
the previous three or more years. The selection of student- 



* Preliminary Education of Teachers: Red Code 1909, pp. 162-166. 
How to become a Teacher, 1908, pp. 4-6. 

* The maintenance allowance may either be paid to the parent or 
guardian of the bursar, or may be applied by the authority in the pro- 
vision for the bursar of travelling facilities, meals, or the like. '' 

' How to become a Teacher; pp. 6 and 7. Preliminary Education of 
Teachers: Red Code 1909, pp. 175-178. 



Preliminary Education of Teachers 59 

teachers is primarily in the hands of the principal of the secon- 
dary school, for he must certify that they are in character and 
ability fit and proper persons to be teachers in elementary schools. 
They must also make declarations that they desire to become 
elementary school teachers. The period of recognition is for 
one year only, but may be continued for a second year with the 
approval of the Board. Like pupil-teachers, they are usually 
employed under written agreements and must have at least two 
half-days a week free from employment. This free time in the 
case of student-teachers must be employed in furthering their 
general education. They may attend the elementary school as 
a part of the staff, in which case they count for twenty scholars 
in average attendance, or they may attend for the purpose of 
practical instruction and observation in the art of teaching. They 
must have passed an examination qualifying for entrance to a 
training college and they are not allowed to enter for any exam- 
ination during their year of recognition without the express ap- 
proval of the Board. Favorable reports from the inspector are 
necessary for their continuance in the teaching profession. At 
the end of the year of service they are qualified either for admis- 
sion to a training college, or for recognition as an uncertified 
teacher.'' 

Training and Instruction of Pupil-teachers, Bursars, and Stu- 
dent-teachers: The preliminary education af the prospective 
teacher has two aspects — the academic or theoretical, and the 
professional training or the practical. In the case of pupil- 
teachers the two parts run concurrently; in the case of bursars 
and student-teachers the academic instruction is given during 
the bursary year, while the practical training is restricted to 
the year of student-teachership. The practical training of the 
bursar may, however, be reserved for the training college period. 
The academic instruction of pupil-teachers is for the most part 
given in pupil-teacher centres or centre classes, while that of 
the bursar is always given in recognized secondary schools. 
Only in isolated rural districts is the education of the pupil- 
teacher now wholly in the hands of the headmaster. 

Pupil-teacher centres are of two types: (a) those which form 
an integral part of a secondary school; and (b) those which are 

'Preliminary Education of Teachers: Red Code 1909, pp. 178-180. 
How to become a Teacher, pp. 7-8. 



6o Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

independently organized. Tlie centre as a separate institution, 
which formerly was regarded as the model institution for train- 
ing pupil-teachers, is now treated as the exceptional organization 
and is therefore rapidly disappearing.** A centre with an inde- 
pendent organization may conduct pupil-teacher preparatory 
classes for boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and six- 
teen. The centre which forms an integral part of a secondary 
school must permit the pupil-teachers to share the ordinary cor- 
porate life of the school and must provide facilities for organ- 
ized games. 

The premises of all centres must be satisfactory from a hygi- 
enic point of view. For pupil-teachers living at a distance from 
the centre satisfactory arrangements for their care and over- 
sight during their absence from home must be made, and proper 
facilities for meals, rest and recreation must be provided. The 
teaching staff, which must be approved by the Board, must be 
adequate to give satisfactory instruction in each subject of the 
curriculum. If the centre is for girls only, the principal and at 
least half of the permanent staff must be women. A mixed cen- 
tre may have a man principal, but women must be largely repre- 
sented on the staff. In no case may a centre be conducted for 
profit or farmed out to the principal ; neither must the salaries of 
the teachers fluctuate with the differing amounts of grant re- 
ceived. The centre must be open for five meetings each week 
and must be conducted for at least thirty-six weeks each year. 
Preparatory pupil-teacher classes must be open for at least nine 
meetings each week of not less than two hours each during thirty- 
six or more weeks in the year. No restrictions are to be im- 
posed on a pupil because of religious belief. The classes are 
limited to thirty ; in no case are they permitted to exceed thirty- 
five. The centre is open at all times to the inspection of the 
Board.* 

The curriculum of a centre and of a secondary school with 
bursars as pupils is dominated by the entrance examinations for 
colleges. The entrance examinations for colleges constitute the 
leaving examinations for bursars and pupil-teachers. The chief 
of these examinations is the preliminary examination for the 

* Manchester held on vaHantly to its separate excellent pupil-teacher 
centre but is now changing this. 

•Preliminary Education of Teachers: Red Code, pp. 166-171. 



Preliminary Education of Teachers 6i 

elementary school teachers certificate, which, in general, is the 
entrance examination for all colleges not constituent parts of 
universities or university colleges. It is also the qualifying ex- 
amination for recognition as an uncertified teacher; and is the 
direct successor of the Queen's Scholarship (afterward the 
King's) instituted in 1846 and abolished in 1907. The others 
are the various matriculation examinations of the universities 
or other examinations of equal difficulty. The preliminary certifi- 
cate examination is divided into two parts, the second of which 
is only open to successful candidates who can furnish a satis- 
factory medical certificate. Part I is taken in December ; Part II 
in April. The subjects for examination in Part I are reading, 
repetition, penmanship, composition, arithmetic, drawing, theory 
of music and needlework — the latter for girls only. In Part II 
all candidates are examined in three compulsory subjects, viz., 
English language and literature, history and geography. They 
may take either one or more of the following optional subjects : — 
elementary mathematics, elementary science, Latin, Greek, 
French, German, Welsh, Hebrew. Not more than two languages 
may be taken, and if two languages are taken, one must be Latin, 
Greek, French or German. Distinction is granted for marked 
success in any of the subjects of Part II. The Board, therefore, 
insists that a centre must take provision for instruction in English 
language, literature, and composition, history, geography, mathe- 
matics (including arithmetic), science (including practical work), 
reading and recitation (including voice production), music, draw- 
ing, physical exercises, a foreign language, manual work for boys, 
and needlework for girls. The Board also publishes suggested 
courses or syllabuses of the various subjects, some of them in 
considerable detail. The suggestions for a four year course in 
English is given in Appendix A. In all cases, the details of the 
courses are worked out by the staff of the centre, and the prin- 
cipal is at liberty to modify them to almost any extent he 
pleases.^*' 

Government and local grants for preliminary education of 
teachers: The Board of Education is able to enforce its various 
regulations by means of a control over the purse. Substantial 
grants are made to local authorities for the purpose of educating 

'*• Preliminary Education of Teachers: Red Code 1909, pp. 167, 168, 
181-195. How to become a Teacher: pp. 18-32. 



62 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

its prospective teachers but only on condition that the regula- 
tions are complied with. These grants may be for the purpose 
of providing the necessary educational facilities, or for travelling 
and maintenance allowances of bursars, and pupil-teachers, which 
are always distributed through the agency of the local authority. 
Government, by its acts, expresses the opinion that to relieve the 
financial strain during the period of training makes ultimately 
for the greater efficiency of the teacher and indirectly promotes 
the welfare of the society. 

The following grants are paid by the Board on account of 
pupil-teachers : 

(a) A grant of £7-10-0 ($37.50) for one year or £15 ($75) 
for two years, to the local authority on account of each pupil- 
teacher fulfilling attendance requirements and passing satisfac- 
torily an examination qualifying for entrance to a training college 
within one year from the completion of the course. Failure in 
the entrance examination reduces the grant to £2-10-0 ($12.50) 
per capita per year. The grant is paid annually but not in full; 
£y ($35) only is paid, on account, at the end of the first year. 
For a student in a pupil-teacher preparatory class £4 ($20), for 
not more than two years in all, is paid. 

(b) For each pupil-teacher not in a centre £2 to £5 ($10- 
$25), but not exceeding £3 ($15) unless special instruction in 
addition to that given by the headmaster, is paid according to 
the nature of the instruction provided. 

(c) Two pounds ($10) per pupil is paid to the council or 
governor of the centre towards the travelling and incidental ex- 
penses of the pupil-teachers. 

(d) In cases where the qualifying examination is a matricu- 
lation examination conducted by university authorities a sum not 
exceeding £2 ($10) is granted to them for each pupil examined. 

The following is the scale of grants for bursars : 

(a) "A grant of ten pounds for each bursar increased by £5 
($25) or one-half the amount of the maintenance allowance 
(whichever may be the less), on account of each bursar who has 
during the year of bursarship received a maintenance allowance 
of not less than £5 ($25)." 

(b) As for pupil-teachers, two pounds ($10) allowance for 
travelling expenses is granted. 



Preliminary Education of Teachers 63 

(c) As for pupil-teachers, two pounds ($10) for expenses 
connected with a matriculation examination is granted. 

No grants are paid by the Board on account of student-teachers. 

The local authority, in addition to free education for pupil- 
teachers and bursars at a centre or secondary school and the 
maintenance allowance for bursars during their bursar year, gen- 
erally offers the inducement of scholarships to prospective teach- 
ers to cover the cost of education and part maintenance during 
the four years of secondary school immediately preceding bursar- 
ship or pupil-teachership. Further, pupil-teachers and student- 
teachers receive salaries ranging from £15 to £55 ($75-$275) 
per year. Free education and part maintenance is thus possible 
to any bright boy or girl in England, who desires to follow the 
profession of teacher, from the age of twelve onwards.^^ 

There has been much discussion in England as to th€ relative 
advantages of the pupil-teacher system on the one hand and the 
bursar and student-teacher system on the other. These two 
courses if taken in normal fashion will run as follows :^^ 

Pupil-teacher system 

Ages How engaged 

5 to 12 pupil in elementary school. 

12 to 14 pupil in elementary or secondary school. 

14 to 16 pupil in secondary school or pupil-teacher 

class. 

16 to 18 pupil-teacher studying part time in centres, 

and teaching part time in the elemen- 
tary school. 

Bursar and student-teacher system 
Ages How engaged 

5 to 12 pupil in elementary school. 

12 to 16 pupil in secondary school. 

16 to 17 bursar in secondary school 

17 to 18 student-teacher in elementary school. 

" For a detailed scheme of a single local authority see the London 
County Council, Scholarships and Training of Teachers Handbook. 
No. 1 1 85: 1908. Appendix E. 

'^ For the various combination courses which fulfil the Board's regula- 
tions see diagram given in Appendix B. 



64 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The advocates of the pupil-teacher system claim that the pupil- 
teacher receives a good practical training during his two years 
of service. This background of practical experience is invalu- 
able, for the teacher-to-taught is fundamentally different from the 
taught-to-teacher attitude. The bursar and student-teacher sys- 
tem does not insure this practical experience, for the bursar may 
omit the student-teacher year and enter college immediately after 
the completion of the bursar year. The supporters of the bursar 
system state that the practical experience of the pupil-teacher 
does more harm than good, for he becomes a mechanical imita- 
tor of the devices of the successful teacher. It is better to give 
a sound secondary education to serve as a background for the 
practice which comes later. Even if the student-teacher year is 
missed, practical experience will be gained later in the practice 
school of the training college, or in the public elementary school 
itself. They contend that the pupil-teacher is full of devices 
but lacks the power to go on growing. Ultimate and permanent 
efficiency is sacrificed to immediate and transitory efficiency. 

The arguments are undoubtedly on the side of the bursar sys- 
tem. The introduction of a compulsory year as student-teacher 
with proper supervision of the training would probably be highly 
beneficial to the English system of preliminary training. A year 
is too short for bad methods to become so ingrained as to be in- 
eradicable. The present inadequacy of experimental and prac- 
tice schools connected with the training colleges lends support, 
for the present, to the argument for a compulsory student-teacher 
year. 



CHAPTER IV 

TRAINING COLLEGES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 

TEACHERS 

The phrase " normal school " is practically obsolete in English 
educational terminology. The specialized institution for ihe 
training of elementary school teachers is now known as a " train- 
ing college." A training college is defined by the Board as " an 
institution for instructing in the principles and practice of teach- 
ing persons who are preparing to become certificated teachers vn — 
public elementary schools and for supplementing their education 
so far as may be necessary."^ This definition emphasizes the 
three aspects of the professional training of teachers, namely, 
academic studies, professional studies and actual practice in 
teaching. The idea of a training college is still further elabo- 
rated by the Board in the statement — "A training college, 
whether residential or day, may be either (a) a separate institu- 
tion carried on solely for the training of teachers, or (b) a de- 
partment of a university, or (c) a department of an institution 
devoted to higher education both in Arts and Science."^ 

Each training college must have a governing body responsible 
to the Board for the framing and submission of courses of study 
where the syllabuses contained in the Board's regulations are 
not followed, for the supervision of lodgings occupied by day 
students, and for the general discipline and moral supervision 
of all students not resident in hostels.^ These councils or com- 
mittees of management are exceedingly variable both with re- 
spect to their size and composition. In the case of university 
day training colleges the council of the university is usually the 
governing body of the college. Denominational colleges are 
usually governed by denominational (clerical) councils. The 
recent colleges established by local education authorities are 



^ Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, p. i. 
' Ibid, p. 2. 
Ibid., p. 6. 65 



66 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

managed by a special committee of the council with or without 
co-opted members. Since the council is essentially a lay or non- 
professional body the professional aspects of its work are fre- 
quently delegated to the principal of the college ; the council 
merely reserving to itself certain supervisorial rights. The prin- 
cipal may also be elected the official correspondent of the college, 
although this office is generally reserved for the secretary to the 
council. 

The training colleges are fairly evenly distributed and are thus 
easily accessible to students. No large section of the country 
is without one, although the south has a greater proportion than 
the north. The easy accessibility of the colleges brings with it 
certain drawbacks the chief of which is the tendency towards 
" inbreeding." Such a procedure is quite unnecessary in Eng- 
land for the government teachers' certificate is valid for life 
and in all parts of the country. The desire for the wider cul- 
ture, which a different environment gives, leads many students 
consciously to select those colleges most remote from their homes. 
In this way London with its plethora of training colleges has 
attracted large numbers of northern students for many genera- 
tions. The recent introduction of the local city training col- 
lege will inevitably tend to exaggerate the segregation of teachers 
in various districts, although the Board has declared against a 
service limit which many localities have tried to impose. 

Training colleges may be classified in various ways, the most 
usual being that of " residential " and " day training " colleges. 
Residential colleges are colleges in which all or some of the stu- 
dents attending the college reside ; day training colleges are those 
in which the students do not reside. Only those recognized stu- 
dents residing in a residential college are described as residential 
students ; other students even though attending residential col- 
lege, are known as day students. Day students may, however, 
reside in a hostel and they are then known as hostel students. 
Other classifications that are recognized in the statistics of the 
Board are (a) according to the sex of the students — men's, 
women's, and co-educational colleges ; (b) according to the au- 
thority providing the institution — colleges controlled by a uni- 
versity, or by a college which is a constituent part of a univer- 
sity, or by other university colleges, or by local education authori- 
ties, or by the various religious organizations; (c) according to 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers by 

the religious connections of the college — Church of England, 
VVesleyan, Roman Catholics, or undenominational.* 

The day training college authorities are compelled to make 
suitable provision for the board and lodging of all students under 
their charge.^ This provision may take the form of a hostel or 
an adequate number of supervised lodgings. 

Men students who do not reside in a residential college must 
reside either (i) in a recognized hostel, or (2) with their parents 
or guardians, or (3) in lodgings licensed and inspected by the 
authorities of the college or of any institution of which the col- 
lege forms part. Similar regulations were once in force for 
women ; after August 1910, however, no woman will be allowed 
to live in licensed lodgings unless suitable accommodations can- 
not be otherwise provided. The modern tendency is to make 
the " lodging rules " more stringent than heretofore. The fol- 
lowing rules in force at the University College of South Wales 
and Monmouthshire, Cardiff, are fairly typical. 

Rules for Men 

" A daily railway journey of more than twenty minutes dura- 
tion in either direction cannot be sanctioned. 

No student may reside in a house which is not on the list of 
registered lodging houses kept in the Registry. 

The college reserves the right to take steps to ascertain that 
the sanitary condition of the lodgings is satisfactory. 

The lodgings must be approved by the head of the men's train- 
ing department. 

The lodgings are subject to inspection by the head of the de- 
partment. 

No student may remove to new lodgings without previously 
obtaining the consent of the head of the department. 

No lodgings are approved unless each room is large enough to 
allow 65 square feet of floor space, and 750 cubic feet of air 
space for each student. 

The lodging-house keeper must, besides conforming to the 
declaration made on the ordinary lodging-house form, send the 
necessary weekly statement to the head of the department, show- 
ing the times at which the student came in at night, in those 
cases in which the student did not return to his rooms before 
eleven P.M. (Forms and stamped addressed envelopes will be 
provided.) 

* Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8, pp. 245-6. 
Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 4-7. 



68 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Students who intend to be absent from their lodging for a 
whole night must obtain previous permission from the head of 
the department."* 

The rules for the women students require all who do not live 
with their parents to reside in Aberdare Hall, the hostel for 
women students. 

The list of registered lodgings for the colleges are usually ob- 
tained by circulating registration blanks and having the house- 
holders fill them up. Some of the blanks, e.g., that in use at 
Goldsmiths' Training College, London, are quite elaborate in 
form. Many of them indicate the probable amotmts the students 
will be able to pay for the board and lodging. In London the 
cost is estimated at ^30 ($150) per year; in the provinces cheaper 
residence may be obtained. 

The growth of the day training colleges has stimulated the 
erection of hostels. Hostels for women will, in the future, be 
an essential part of the equipment of every day training college 
where women are received. The English hostels are different 
in several particulars from the American dormitories. In the 
first place, they are not merely lodgings for a large number of 
students ; they invariably provide both board and lodging for a 
rather small number of students. They are usually situated in 
the midst of extensive grounds and thus afford facilities for 
athletics and other outdoor exercises. Tutorial assistance, in 
addition to the usual tuition received in college classes, is usually 
provided. A healthy corporate life is thus encouraged, and in 
the case of hostels which are not restricted to students in train- 
ing opportunities for a wider culture are given. The official 
regulations of the Board state that no hostels for less than ten 
students will be recognized. Each hostel is to have a responsible 
governing body who will conduct it under a scheme which 
has received endorsement by the Board. The scale of fees 
must be sanctioned by the Board and no discriminations are to 
be made against teachers in training because of the government 
grants for maintenance which are made to them. The premises 
must be satisfactory from a hygienic point of view. The prin- 
cipal and staff must meet with the approval of the Board. Hos- 



' Prospectus for Men, Session 1909-10, of the University College of 
South Wales and Monmouthshire. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 69 

tels newly recognized cannot impose any religious tests whatso- 
ever upon teachers or governing body. Those founded prior to 
1907 may provide distinctive religious teaching upon the written 
requests of the students, but such instruction must be provided 
from funds other than grants made by the Board or any local 
authority.^ In 1907-8 there were in England and Wales twenty- 
seven hostels providing an accommodation for 987 students. Of 
this number nine with accommodation for 457 students were non- 
denominational hostels provided by local education authorities.^ 
The cost of living in a hostel is generally greater than in private 
lodgings. In general the cost to men is about £50 ($250), of 
which £40 ($200) is provided by the government in the form 
of a grant; the cost to women is about £40 ($200), of which 
£25 ($125) is covered by the government grant.^ 

It was pointed out in a preceding chapter (Chapter II) that 
the earlier grants for training colleges of the Committee of Coun- 
cil on Education were first utilized for the establisment, and 
afterwards for the maintenance, of the institutions for which 
they were made. Further, it was pointed out that since 1905 
the government grants towards the establishment of training 
colleges and hostels by local authorities had been an amount 
not exceeding 75% of all capital expenditure incurred in pro- 
viding both sites and buildings. In order to prevent local authori- 
ties from erecting buildings at an excessive cost the Board in 
the regulations for the training of elementary teachers for 1909 
have published a scale, which in no case will be exceeded, based 
on the average 75% cost of each student place provided. The 
scale^** is as follows : 



' Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 4-7. 
* Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8, Table 109. 
' Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, Chap. XI. 
'»Ibid., Chap. XIII. 



70 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

DESCRIPTION OF PREMISES ^^^a^ce^provided^^*^^ 

1. Residential training college in which provi- 
sion is made for the instruction and residence of 

the students in a single block ;£i95 ($975) 

2. Residential training college in which provi- 
sion is made for the instruction and residence of 
the students in separate blocks: 

(a) Educational block £'j^ ($37S) 

(b) Residential block £^3S ($675) 

3. Day training college without provision for 

the residence of students ;(^9o ($450) 

4. Day training college erected as part of a 

scheme involving the provision of hostels £75 i^SJS) 

S- Hostel £i3s ($675) 

Training colleges are maintained for the most part by grants 
made by the Board on behalf of the students in residence. The 
other sources of income are the fees of the students and, in the 
case of denominational colleges, donations from religious organ- 
izations or subscriptions from patrons. Donations and subscrip- 
tions form a very small part of the income of the college. The 
grants of the Board are distributed according to the following 
scale: "(a) In respect of resident students, grants at the rate 
of i53 ($265) for men or £38 ($190) for women are payable to 
the governing body of the training college; (b) In respect of 
other recognized students, grants at the rate of £13 ($65) are 
payable to the governing body of the training college." The 
grants are paid in five instalments, four during the session and 
the balance as soon as possible after the close of the session. 

The four essential and universal admittance requirements for 
a training college are: 

(a) Success in the preliminary examination for the teachers' 

certificate, or in one of its numerous recognized equiva- 
lents. 

(b) Production of a satisfactory health certificate. 

(c) Giving an undertaking to teach for a given term of years. 

(d) Must have attained the age of seventeen years ; the normal 

age is eighteen years. 

Since the present college accommodation is inadequate to meet 

the demands for training, and since many of the colleges have 

religious connections of a very definite nature, each college, 

within the limits imposed by the Board in its regulations, is 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 7 1 

allowed to make certain additional regulations to insure itself 
against the acceptance of undesirable students. The number of 
students which a training college can accommodate is fixed by 
the Board after a careful consideration of the premises and 
faculty of the college. This number may not be exceeded and, 
since the applications are generally double or treble the accom- 
modation, an elaborate system of registering candidates has been 
evolved. Candidates for the preliminary examination for cer- 
tificate or its equivalent, or those who have successfully passed 
such examinations, are permitted to file an application for ad- 
mission to a training college not earlier than October ist of the 
year preceding their possible entrance. In most cases a registra- 
tion fee not exceeding los. ($2.50) is demanded of each candi- 
date. This fee is returned in case of failure, but is credited to 
the account of the successful candidates. A further entrance 
fee of £20 to £25 ($ioo-$i25) is demanded of residential stu- 
dents on taking up residence in a residential college. The register 
of candidates is filed in the order in which they are received but 
this does not mean that candidates are offered places in this 
order. Candidates may be refused admittance on various 
grounds, but for valid reasons only. Married women are not 
admitted. Deficiency in education, residence outside a given area, 
or personal defects which would militate against the success of 
the candidate in the schools are considered valid reasons ; rejec- 
tion on the ground of social antecedents is not allowed. In all 
cases the register must state the reasons for rejection. In de- 
nominational colleges fifty per cent of the places may be reserved 
for members of a particular religious persuasion. Some colleges 
impose a religious examination upon the applicants and all col- 
leges connected with the Church of England emphasize the im- 
portance of communion, confirmation, and success in scripture 
examinations. In some colleges a certificate for religious knowl- 
edge is required. In order to help colleges in their selection of 
candidates the Board of Education supplies them with their list 
of candidates in order of merit as placed in the lists of the pre- 
liminary examination. If the college authorities demand addi- 
tional examinations or interviews with its candidates the fares 
and other expenses must be paid by them.^^ 

" Circular 570. Admission of candidates to training colleges. Regula- 
tions for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 8-1 1. 



7 2 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The authorities of the training colleges are required by the 
government to take great pains to obtain most accurate informa- 
tion as to the health of the candidates for admission. This is 
secured by requiring each candidate to produce a medical certifi- 
cate of the form prescribed by the college. A further examina- 
tion takes place before recognition is given by the Board. This 
recognition may be withdrawn upon adverse reports in subse- 
quent annual medical examinations during the period of resi- 
dence in college. 

Another important feature of the admission requirements is 
the " form of undertaking " to be executed by students before 
they are formally admitted as recognized students. The form 
of undertaking for resident students is given in Appendix C. 
Prior to August 1905 the student signed a declaration stating 
that it was his bona fide intention to teach in any type of school 
except a government inspected secondary school. This declara- 
tion was signed by the student during his minority and was often 
broken because it carried no legal obligation with it. To remedy 
this state of affairs the Board now requires the student to bind 
himself, in return for the grants paid for his training, to com- 
plete the course of training and subsequently to teach, for seven 
years in the case of a man, and for five in the case of a woman, 
in any of the schools or colleges under the jurisdiction of the 
Board. Secondary schools are now included in this category. 
Failing the conclusion of such service the student binds himself 
to repay to the Board such proportionate part of the cost of his 
training as is represented by the uncompleted years of service. 
Such a declaration as this prevents the utilization of the teaching 
profession as a stepping stone to other professions — a method of 
procedure which is all too common in America. 

The social status of the teachers in training for elementary 
schools is indicated by the occupations of their parents. Most 
of them are the sons and daughters of the better class of artisans 
and retail traders. An increasing number are being drawn from 
the ranks of the professional classes. Especially is this true with 
respect to the three year students taking degree courses in the 
day training colleges of the universities. The following table 
gives the occupation of the parents of bursars (intending teach- 
ers) in 1907-8 for the whole of England, and of the students 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 73 

accepted by or applying for admission to the Day Training Col- 
lege of Manchester University 1909-11.^- 



TABLE II 



Occupation of parents 



Teachers 

Ministers of Religion. 
Members of other pro 

fessions 

Farmers 

Wholesale Traders. . . 

Retail Traders 

Contractors 

Minor Officials 

Commercial travelers 

and agents 

Clerks 

Postmen, Policemen, 

Seamen and Soldiers 
Domestic and other 

Servants 

Foremen 

Artisans 

Laborers 

No occupation given 

(chiefly widows) . . 



Bursars 



637 men 



No. 

of 

men 



9 

25 

115 



30 
4' 

17 

30 

16 

174 

28 

43 






7.8 

8 

9 

4 

9 
I 

7 
9 

4-7 
6.4 



6.8 



1408 women 



No. 
of 
wom- 
en 



72 

50 

80 

199 

34 

75 

74 
130 

38 

57 

30 

308 

45 
123 



9 i>':3 



6.0 

0.6 



5 

3 

5 

14 



5- 
9 

2.7 

4.0 

2 . 1 

21.9 

3-2 



Students in Manchester 
University 



123 men 



No. 

of 

men 



10 



'-' M ™. 



8.5 
6.0 

6.0 

r .0 

30 

12.0 

2 .0 

6.0 

50 
9 

2 .0 

8.5 

23.0 
b.o 

7,0 



I 72 women 



No. 

of 

woni' 

en 



c2z 



13.0 

1-5 

5-0 

4.5 

30 

10 .0 



9.0 
9.0 



1-5 
8.0 



While the figures are too small to make dogmatic statements 
about them, they undoubtedly indicate that the day training college 
secures students of a distinctly higher social grade than does the 
residential college. Dr. Salisbury in a report of a visit to the 
Schools of Great Britain, October — December, 1908, probably 
sums up the situation when he states that " the teachers in ele- 
mentary schools are chiefly drawn from the lower middle class ; 
they are the children of small shop-keepers, the better class of 



'^ Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8, Table 62; and records of the 
University of Manchester. 



74 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

artisans, policemen, etc., including schoolmasters. The sons 
and daughters of professional men or men of large business in- 
terests very rarely become teachers, and then only in the secon- 
dary schools. A " lady " would not descend lower than this. 
Nevertheless, and notwithstanding their lack of social polish and 
station, these elementary teachers seem to me to be of the moral 
bone and sinew of present-day England. "^^ 

The teaching staffs of the training colleges are being constantly 
improved owing to the persistent supervision of the Board. In 
order to obtain recognition as an institution for the training of 
teachers " the teaching staff must be such as to provide adequately 
for each of the following branches of study: (i) education; (2) 
English language and literature; (3) history and geography; 
(4) mathematics; (5) science. In training colleges in Wales 
provision must also be made for the teaching of (6) Welsh." 
Further qualifications required of the staff are that at least two- 
thirds of them must be graduates of a reputable university. If 
the qualifications fall below this standard fixed by the Board 
alternate vacancies, at least, in the non-graduate portion of the 
staffs of existing colleges are to be filled by graduates. Before 
an appointment to the staff is made the fullest possible details 
must be submitted to the Board, which then sanctions or dis- 
approves the prospective appointment. The Board may cause a 
teacher to be removed from a faculty for inefficiency as a teacher, 
but this is done, if ever, only on the rarest occasions. Each 
training college must have a principal. Formerly, women's col- 
leges had men principals, but from 1908 onwards only women 
will be appointed to those posts. ^* The principals of denomi- 
national colleges are often clergymen in Holy Orders. Their 
professional qualifications in some cases, it must be confessed, 
are not of a very high order. In 1908, the following qualifications 
were held by the members of the various training college staffs 
in England and Wales :^^ 



" Bulletin of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wisconsin, April, 
1909. 

'* Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 2-4. 
'•Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8, Table no. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 75 

Men Women 

(a) Certificated teachers (graduates) 

( 1 ) trained 56 45 

(2) untrained 20 21 

(b) Certificated teachers (not graduates) 

( 1 ) trained 27 104 

(2) untrained 2 11 

(c) Graduates who were not certificated teachers 102 125 

(d) Other teachers 8 69 

(e) Total 215 375 

It will thus be seen from the table that 83.7% of the men 
and 50.9% of the women hold university degrees. 

The teachers comprising a training college faculty are gener- 
ally called lecturers, although such titles as tutor, governess, 
demonstrator, etc., are far from uncommon. One person is desig- 
nated the master (or mistress) of method and to him is delegated 
much of the professional work, such as the lectures on general 
and special method, the supervision of practice teaching and so 
forth. The teachers lecture in cap and gown and there is much 
greater deference shown to them by the students than is the case 
in American normal schools. Still, there is usually an excellent 
friendly feeling between teachers and students which is fostered 
in the case of residential colleges and hostels by the living of a 
more or less communal life. 

There are five classes of students recognized by the Board : 

(a) Two year students. 

(b) One year students. 

(c) Certificated students. 

(d) Three year students. 

(e) Third year students. 

(a) The majority of the students in the training colleges are 
two year students. They must be at least eighteen years of age 
on entrance, except in the case of those students who have been 
in attendance at a secondary school during the previous three 
years. In such cases the age of entrance may be reduced to 
seventeen. They pursue a course of study which ensures a con- 
tinuance of their general academic studies and also provides for 
their training along professional lines. During the course they 
are not allowed to sit for external examinations. The course 



76 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

leads up to the final examination for the teachers' certificate or 
its substitutes as approved by the Board. The substitutes may 
be (i) examinations conducted by a university but not con- 
stituting a recognized stage in the course for a degree; (2) 
examinations which conform to the rules laid down by the Board 
conducted by a joint examining body of which not more than 
one-half are members of the training college faculty; (3) for 
specially brilliant students who have passed one of certain quali- 
fying examinations before admission to college, an examination 
leading to a university degree may be substituted, in part, for 
the ordinary certificate examination of the Board. Certain rights 
of supervision are retained by the Board in all cases of alterna- 
tive examinations.^*' 

(b) One year students must be nineteen years of age and must 
have passed the final degree examination of any university in the 
British Isles, or its equivalent.^'' The year is devoted mainly to 
professional training but any deficiencies in those subjects which 
form an essential part of the elementary school curriculum must 
be made up. At the end of the course they are tested in a 
similar manner to two year students in the subjects which have 
formed part of the course for the year.^^ 

(c) Persons who have passed the certificate examination of 
the Board but have not been trained in a college may enter as 
certificated students. The object of the course of study pursued 
is to improve their general education and to supplement their 
previous experience by carefully chosen professional studies. The 
usual period of practice teaching, and any subject in which they 
have received satisfactory instruction before entering the train- 
ing college, may be omitted. They may not study for any 
examination which leads towards a university degree. At the end 
of the course they submit to tests exactly as do the one year 
students.^" 

(d) Three year students constitute an increasingly important 
section of the body of teachers in training. Only education de- 
partments which are constituent parts of universities are per- 
mitted to receive students of this type, and the Board may re- 



** Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, Chap. II. 
1' Ibid, Appendix A. (III.) 
18 Ibid, Chap. V. 
>» Ibid, Chap. IV. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 7 7 

quire that the number of three year students admitted shall not 
exceed a definite proportion of the total student body. The age 
of admittance is eighteen years, but in the case of students with 
a three years secondary school education immediately preceding 
admittance, the age may be lowered to seventeen years. The 
student must have passed the matriculation examination of the 
university previous to entrance. His course of study is extremely 
arduous for not only must he take the professional work con- 
nected with his training but also the ordinary work connected 
with his degree. The degree in England is usually granted at 
the end of the third year; only in case of students studying for 
honors are four years allowed. Unless satisfactory progress is 
made towards the degree the student must leave the institution. 
The time-table difificulty is a serious one for the degree sub- 
jects usually take precedence in the very much over- 
crowded schedules. A few universities recognize professional 
work in education as part of the requirements for the degree. 
This eases the strain of double work somewhat but the univer- 
sity authorities would be well advised to proceed further along 
these lines. The student is medically examined at the beginning 
of each year and the officer must certify that the student is 
strong enough to continue the course without undue strain. An 
excellent plan for relieving the strain is in operation in Man- 
chester and other universities. Following the regulations set 
out in section 45 (e) the three year student, with the exception 
of the usual practice teaching in the summer vacation, is allowed 
to take nothing but the academic work for his degree during the 
first two years of his course in the training college. This, with 
the addition of a year in the university taken at his own expense, 
completes the requirements for the degree. The post-graduate 
third year (fourth year as university student) is wholly de- 
voted to the study of education. This plan gives excellent re- 
sults. The course of study for three year students is 
modified in several important particulars. The degree course 
is accepted in place of the academic work, provided the student 
on the completion of the course has at some period received ade- 
quate instruction in English, mathematics, history, geography 
and elementary science. The minimum period of practice teach- 
ing for three year students is extended from six to eight weeks. 
They are certified at the end of the course if they have passed 



78 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

the final examination for the (legrce and have satisfied his 
Majesty's inspector in regard to proficiency in the usual profes- 
sional subjects. 

(e) Third year students are the exceptionally bright two year 
students who, on the completion of their course of study, are 
granted by the Board an additional year of training. This third 
year of training may he taken either in England or Wales, or 
abroad. If taken at home the student must cither pursue courses 
leading to the final examination for a degree or in professional 
training for special work in the public schools. In the latter 
case pre])aration is usually made for the teaching of the deaf 
or defective. If the third year is taken abroad the student may 
prepare himself to become a teacher of modern languages, or 
he may take up the study of a foreign educational system. The 
latter course cannot be followed unless the student has had two 
years, and not more than four, of successful teaching practice 
subsequent to the completion of his college ccnirse. 

The cost to students varies with the different colleges.^" For 
residential students the cost for the two years does not necessarily 
exceed £30 ($150). The remainder of the cost for board, lodg- 
ing, tuition and laundry is covered by the grants of the Board 
which are made to the governing body of the college. Day stu- 
dents receive grants from the Hoard which are paid to them 
through the agency of the college. These grants are to enable 
them to pay hostel charges, or charges for board and lodging. 
For hostel students or students resident in colleges of the uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge grants at the rate of £40 
($200) for men and £25 ($125) for women are made. Other 
day students receive grants of £25 ($125) and £20 ($100) for 
men and women respectively. Any additional expenses must be 
met from private sources.^* 

The course of study for training colleges with a normal course 
of two years may include the following subjects: 

(i) English language, literature and composition. 

(2) History and geography. 

(3) Elementary mathematics. 

(4) Hygi ene. 

" Regukition.s for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, 
Appendix K. 

^' Ibid, Chap. XI. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 7 9 

(5) Theory of music. 

(6) The principles of teaching. 

(7) Elementary science. 

(8) The practice of teaching. 

(9) Reading and repetition. 

(10) Drawing. 

(11) Needlework (for women). 

(12) Singing. 

(13) Physical training. 

(14) Manual instruction (for men). 

The subjects are divided into two parts — the first six in which 
the students are examined individually, and the last eight in 
which the proficiency of the college as a whole is tested during 
the visits of inspectors. Drawing, manual instruction, and physi- 
cal training may be omitted by those students who have had satis- 
factory training in those branches before entering college. Stu- 
dents with no ear for music are excused from singing. Not more 
than two optional subjects from the following list may also be 
included in the course : 



d: 


' English literature. 


(2: 


) Education. 


(3: 


1 History. 


(4; 


) Geography. 


(5; 


) Welsh language and literature. 


(6. 


1 French. 


(7: 


\ German. 


(8. 


) Italian. 


(9, 


) Spanish. 


(10: 


\ Latin. 


(11; 


1 Greek. 


(12; 


1 Hebrew. 


(13: 


) Mathematics. 


(14; 


) Physics. 


(15 


) Chemistry. 


(16: 


) Botany. 


(17: 


1 Rural science. 


(18; 


1 Housecraft (for women only) 


(19: 


) Advanced drawing. 


(20^ 


) Music. 



8o Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The syllabuses of the optional subjects are of a more advanced 
character than those of the ordinary subjects. The examination 
papers set in them at the end of the second year are approximately 
equal in difficulty to those set in corresponding subjects at the 
Intermediate Arts and Science Examinations of London Univer- 
sity. This, according to American standards, would be equivalent 
to an examination set by reputable colleges at the end of the 
junior year. For those students studying for a university degree, 
special courses may be recognized. 

Certificated students, in general, omit the practice of teaching, 
reading and repetition, drawing, needlework and singing. 

One year students omit English language, literature, and com- 
position, history and geography, elementary mathematics and ele- 
mentary science. 

Three year students omit hygiene, physical training, manual 
instruction. The following are also omitted if it can be shown 
that the student has received previous satisfactory instruction in 
them : — English language, literature and composition, history and 
geography, elementary science and elementary mathematics. The 
degree courses cover the bulk of the academic work required by 
the Board. 

The Board publish a considerable number of alternative courses 
of study for the majority of the subjects given in the ordinary and 
the optional lists. The training colleges are not required to adopt 
any of them, but if they do not they must produce a scheme of 
equal or superior merit. The colleges with a normal course usu- 
ally adopt one or the other of the Board's syllabuses.-^ For 
example, St. Mary's Hall, Cheltenham, for the year 19 lo, chose, 
where alternatives were given, the following schemes of the 
Board : English language, literature and composition — Scheme 
IV; History and geography — Scheme II ; Principles of teaching — 
Syllabuses Nos. II and III. In the optional subjects courses were 
given to meet the Board's requirements in the following: Eng-. 
lish literature, education, French, Latin, mathematics, chemistry, 
and advanced drawing. 

The scope of the various ordinary courses will now be indicated. 

(i) English language, literature and composition: Four alter- 
native courses are provided. Each course is divided into three 

^ The various syllabuses are given in Appendices C and D of the 
Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 8i 

parts: (a) works for general reading which always include a play 
of Shakespeare, an anthology (a list of anthologies suitable to 
the course is given), and various readings in standard litera- 
ture; (b) readings for detailed study which include a play of 
Shakespeare and selections from Bacon's Essays; (c) an out- 
line course on the structure of the English language, the object 
of which is to impart a knowledge and understanding of broad 
principles rather than detailed information. 

(2) History and geography: Seven alternative schemes are 
given. Six of them emphasize the history, the seventh lays stress 
on geography. English history is most frequently included al- 
though Scheme V run as follows: " The history of British set- 
tlements in America down to and including the establishment of 
the Federal Constitution of the United States." The geography 
scheme has sociological aspects. 

(3) Elementary mathematics: More mathematics is required 
of the men than of the women. Algebra and arithmetic have 
single schemes provided ; geometry may be studied according to 
Euclid or along the lines of practical geometry. The latter is 
more generally favored. 

(4) Hygiene: A syllabus for twelve lectures is given. The 
topics included are the skeleton and muscular system, the diges- 
tive system, the respiratory and circulatory systems, the excre- 
tory system, the nervous system, sense organs, sanitation of the 
school, disabilities and diseases of children, and medical inspec- 
tion of schools. 

(5) Theory of music: Both sol-fa and staff notation are 
studied. 

(6) Principles of teaching: Six alternative syllabuses are pre- 
sented. The last three deal respectively with the teaching of the 
blind, deaf and mentally defective. Syllabus No. i runs as fol- 
lows : 

"(a) School-buildings and equipment; the bearing of various 
types of school building on the work of the school ; sanitary con- 
ditions and supervision. 

(b) The specific work of the head teacher, the classification of 
scholars, and the distribution of the staflf in various types of 
school, e.g., a small country school, large urban school, etc. 

(c) School records. Subjects of the curriculum and the rea- 
sons for their inclusion ; their relative importance, and the possi- 



82 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

bility of connecting one with another. The variations in curric- 
ula and time-ta'bles necessary to meet the needs of scholars of 
various ages and various types of school. Special methods of 
instruction suitable to older and younger children respectively. 
The transition from infant classes to the work of older children. 

(d) Discipline and self-discipline. The means of bringing the 
influence of the school to bear upon the home and after-life of 
the scholars. 

(e) The place of the elementary school in a national system of 
education. 

(a) Speech: Means of securing distinct articulation; use of 
stories ; continuous speech and written composition ; reading ; 
poetry and singing. 

(b) Manual occupations, including drawing; their educational 
value and right use in connection with other subjects; writing; 
domestic occupations — e.g., gardening, needlework, etc. : nor- 
mal value of this training. 

(c) General physical training, including games ; laws of health. 

(d) Nature study: Means of developing interest in nature; 
animal and plant life ; elements of geography. 

(e) Number and elementary mathematics; suitable methods 
and apparatus. 

(f) History: national traditions and social life."^^ 

(7) Elementary science: No scheme is prescribed by the 
Board. An elaborate syllabus for rural science is g'iven but 
this, of course, is an optional subject. The scheme for rural 
science is a deliberate attempt on the part of the Board to cater 
to the needs of the rural teacher.^* It includes (a) plant life; 
(b) field botany; (c) gardening: the soil; and (d) work to be 
done in the garden. 

(8) The practice of teaching: The authorities of training 
colleges are recommended not to place more than ten practice 
teachers under the charge of one supervisor and to make the 
practice as continuous as possible. " Criticism " or " Open Les- 
sons " are to be given and students are to be exempted from lec- 
tures and class work during the period of practice. 

(9) Reading and repetition: The practice in reading is ob- 
tained by reading aloud from the books studied in the literature 

^ Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 73-4. 

^* The diflficulty of staffing rural continuation schools is treated at 
length in the Report of the Consultative Committee on attendance, 
compulsory or otherwise, at continuation schools; 1909, pp. 191-6. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 83 

period. Not less than 200 lines from standard authors are to be 
learned by heart. In Welsh colleges 100 lines may be in Welsh. 

(10) Drawing: Great freedom is permitted. Blackboard 
drawing and drawing from memory are included. 

(11) Needlework (for women) is of a very practical nature. 

(12) Singing: Includes choral singing, sight reading from 
both notations, etc. 

(13 and 14) The syllabus for physical training is under revi- 
sion. No scheme for manual training is given. 

Shortened courses of study may be taken in English, history 
and geography, provided the time so gained is devoted to prac- 
tice on class teaching. 

The curricula of the English training colleges in comparison 
with those of American normal schools indicate a greater em- 
phasis on literature and perhaps mathematics, while there is 
considerably less attention paid to science, history of education, 
and psychology. In many training colleges neither psychology, 
as such, nor history of education finds a place. England would do 
well to pay greater attention to genetic psychology and to the 
observation of child life. English teachers, in general, know 
more subject-matter than American teachers but they do not 
teach it in so efficient a manner. This is probably a result of 
of the very unpedagogical methods of teaching employed in the 
colleges. The lecture method is almost invariably followed. The 
students take notes, get them up, and reproduce them subse- 
quently in examinations. The use of libraries by the students is 
much less effective than in America. This is due to inadequate 
library facilities. 

The texts employed in colleges are varied. For all subjects 
except education texts by English authors are for the most part 
employed. For education, American texts are very frequently 
used. James's " Talks to Teachers," Bagley's " Educative Pro- 
cess," Kirkpatrick's " Fundamentals of Child Study," Monroe's 
" History of Education " and the various educational essays of 
Dewey are as familiar to the English three year students as to 
the graduates of an average two year American normal school. 
The books are bought by the students and, in spite of the com- 
parative cheapness of English books, bills amounting to £8 ($40) 



84 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

or more are not infrequently accumulated in the course of the 
two or three years. 

The arrangement of the time-tables is very interesting. In 
residential colleges the work of the day often commences at seven 
a. m. In general, lectures are given during the morning; the 
afternoon is devoted to games, and the evening to study with 
or without supervision. Six periods per day of fifty minutes 
duration would seem to be the norm for English training colleges. 

The method of conducting the criticism lessons and the prac- 
tice teaching in the English training colleges leaves much to be 
desired. The ideal plan would be to have at least three schools 
in organic connection with the college. The first of these, the 
model school, would be used to illustrate the best methods of 
teaching that are at present known. It would, of necessity, have 
the best teachers obtainable and would not be used for practice 
teaching or for experimentation. It would, however, utilize the 
results of the experiments carried out in the experimental school. 
So far as possible, the school would have a normal organization 
with respect to such details as size of classes, course of study, 
and so forth. The second school would be a practice school. 
This school would be large with numerous classes so that the 
children would not be overwhelmed with the multiplicity of 
teachers. Each class would be in charge of a strong teacher who 
would give unity and continuity to the work of the class as a 
whole. The third school would be the experimental school. 
This would be taught by scientific students of education prefer- 
ably university graduates with teaching experience. Here valu- 
able educational data would be accumulated and new methods of 
teaching scientifically investigated. The results of the investi- 
gations would be published from time to time. 

At the present time no English training college has a model 
school, as described above, attached to it. In a few places a prac- 
ticing school called a model school is attached ; in still fewer 
places there are combined experimental and practicing schools 
called demonstration schools under the control of the colleges. 
Of these the most noted is the demonstration school of the Uni- 
versity of Manchester. The London Day Training College and 
other colleges are gradually securing the full control of schools 
for practice. The Board has recently recognized the value of 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 85 

demonstration schools, for the present regulations-"* state that 
" No training college, not already recognized, will be considered 
as completely equipped without a demonstration school, and the 
Board will require, where such a school is not established, to be 
satisfied that circumstances make it impossible. A demonstra- 
tion school must fulfil the following conditions : 

"(i) It must be either a public elementary school or other 
school approved for this purpose by the Board, and must be 
organized and taught in accordance with the provisions of Chap- 
ter I of the code of regulations for public elementary schools. 

(2) It must be closely associated with the training college 
for the purpose of illustrating the most approved and successful 
methods of school organization, discipline and instruction. 

(3) The conditions of association must be such as to allow 
the governing body of the training college to exercise effective 
influence over the details of organization (including staffing), 
discipline, and instruction, and to secure that these shall be the 
best available." 

The lack of practice schools has not been severely felt in the 
past, for all the students in the college were teachers experienced 
in teaching. With the introduction of the bursary system, which 
makes it possible to enter college without previous teaching 
experience, the need for further facilities for practice teaching 
has become very acute. The Board requires that in the case of 
students who have had no practical experience previous to enter- 
ing the training college, the period of practice in class teaching 
(six weeks for two year students) must be extended to three 
months.^® 

The usual method of giving practical experience is by means 
of open or criticism lessons and by continuous practice in teach- 
ing a group of scholars in the elementary school. This teaching 
may be done during the session or in the summer vacation. The 
former method is usual for residential colleges, the latter for the 
day training colleges. If large colleges are located in small 
towns the practice teaching must be accomplished in some 
neighboring town. Thus, the students of Bangor Normal Col- 
lege do their practice teaching for three weeks in September in 

"Article 4 (f), 1909 regulations. 

''Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 15 
and S3- 



86 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

the city of Liverpool some eighty or ninety miles away. In like 
manner, the Bangor day training students do practice teaching 
in Wrexham ; the Chester students in Birkenhead ; the Ripon 
students in York and Scarborough ; and the Warrington students 
in Manchester and Liverpool. Much valuable time and energy 
is lost in this way. When the time lost by supervisors in tramp- 
ing from one school to another is taken into account, a good 
cas,e for practising schools under the immediate control of the 
college can be made out on the score of economy alone. The 
periods of practice teaching are for one, two or three weeks at 
a time. The criticism lessons are given before the whole class 
or some portion of it. Most colleges have special rooms ar- 
ranged in gallery form for the purposes of holding criticism 
lessons. The scholars are placed in front ; the students sit behind 
and take notes. The lesson may be criticized immediately after 
its completion. The more usual course, however, is to delay 
the criticism for at least a day. The conduct of the criticism 
is very varied ; it may be restricted to discussion under four large 
heads — material, method, teacher, and scholars, as is the case 
in Manchester ; or it may run to the minutest details, as is the 
case in St. Mark's College, Chelsea. Too many details are apt 
to lead the student astray ; they emphasize unimportant points 
and neglect the essentials. 

Because the work of the Education Department of the Uni- 
versity of Manchester is representative of the better type of work 
for the professional training of teachers that is being done in 
England an account of it is here given. 

The University of Manchester is one of the newer co-educa- 
tional universities. The education department, organized in 1890, 
is a constituent part of the university. The majority of the stu- 
dents in the department are three year students who are studying 
for the bachelor's degree in Arts or Science. A few women 
students are admitted as two year students, in which case they 
receive special training as kindergarten teachers. The depart- 
ment is fortunate in the possession of a practising school — the 
Fielden Demonstration School — founded by Mrs. Fielden who 
also endowed the chair of education in the University. It is 
organized as a kindergarten, elementary and higher elementary 
school. There are ten classes, each with twenty pupils. A com- 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 87 

petent teacher is in charge of each class. In this way continuity 
of instruction is secured. 

The college students in the first year take courses in child 
study and school hygiene. One meeting per week is devoted to 
observation of children or experimental work in the Fielden 
School. Definite problems are assigned to the students before 
the observation period so that no uncertainty exists and no vague 
aimless observations are made. Such problems as the following 
are given : ( i ) make a stenographic report of all the words a 
given child uses in an oral composition lesson and classify them 
under the various parts of speech; (2) make a chronological re- 
port of all the physical actions of a particular child in a ten- 
minute period; (3) test the eyesight and hearing of a number 
of children ; (4) make records of the height and weight of the 
children, and so forth. In addition, individual records of the 
children are kept by the students. One pupil is assigned to each 
student, who keeps a continuous record during the whole of his 
three years at college. This observational and experimental 
work is the practical work connected with the lectures and dis- 
cussions on child study. 

The first year professional course is not complete until three 
weeks of continuous teaching in some elementary school of the 
City -of Manchester has been performed. This takes place in 
July. Not more than six students are sent to a school. The 
practice teaching is supervised by the different members of the 
staff, but the headmaster of the school has charge of the students 
and considers them, for the time being, as constituent parts of 
his school staff. Good feeling exists between the City Education 
Authorities and the University Education Department, and so 
far the scheme has worked very smoothly. This short period of 
apprenticeship type of teaching seems to give good results ; stu- 
dents learn anew the externals of discipline and acquire power 
in adapting themselves to unfamiliar conditions. 

During the second year the students attend courses in general 
and special methods. As in the first year, the demonstration 
school is used as the laboratory. Lessons in illustration are given 
by members of the college faculty or by the class teachers of the 
school before the whole of the students. These lessons are dis- 
cussed later in class to bring out the different points in method. 



88 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Observation of work in special schools is also a feature of the 
courses in special methods. The July practice teaching is re- 
peated in this year. 

Lectures on Principles of Teaching and History of Educa- 
tion are attended in the third year of the course. The student 
now teaches for the first time in the demonstration school. A 
subject is chosen by the student and is taught by him at all 
meetings of the class in that subject for the whole of one term 
(three months) ; a second subject is taught during the second 
term. This teaching is considered by the Board the equivalent 
of two weeks' continuous teaching. Careful lesson plans are 
prepared beforehand by the student and are criticized by the- 
supervisor. When satisfactory, they are entered in the class les- 
son book in that subject. A diary made in the same book shows 
the deviations which are made in the actual teaching of the sub- 
ject from the plans prepared previously. Throughout the whole 
of the courses, constant efforts are made to link up the theory 
of the lectures with the practice of the schoolroom. 

The certification of students in the training colleges is largely 
dependent upon (i) an examination in academic subjects and 
(2) inspection by the Board in the professional subjects of the 
curriculum. The examination may be given by the Board or 
by some joint examining body approved by the Board. The 
degree of a university may be substituted for the academic ex- 
amination of the Board by all day training colleges with three 
year students. " Distinction " is granted for special proficiency 
in academic subjects as shown by the Board's examination. The 
professional subjects of the course, namely, practice of teaching, 
reading and repetition, drawing, needlework, singing, physical 
training and elementary science are inspected by the Board. The 
method of inspection includes (a) visitation of the college at any 
reasonable time by an inspector for the purpose of oversight 
of the methods of instruction, course of study, suitability of 
premises, etc. ; (b) judging of the grades given for proficiency 
of the students in various subjects by the training college faculty. 
The latter is done as follows : — Before the end of the second 
year (in some special cases the third) the principal of the 
training college submits lists of his students divided up into 
five groups according to their proficiency in each professional 
subject. The lowest group (E) are the failures. The inspec- 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 89 

tors at the time of the college visitation, instead of examining 
each student individually in all subjects as was formerly the 
case, select samples, as it were, from among the students and 
give these separate examinations. The college standards are 
judged by the marks obtained by the selected students. If a 
judgment cannot be made in this way, records and samples of 
the work of the students must be submitted to the inspector. It 
will thus be seen that part of the certification is in the hands of 
the training college faculties ; the inspectors simply insure that 
the privilege is not abused and that reasonably high standards 
are maintained. Graduation from college in the American sense 
of satisfactory completion of a given number of courses is abso- 
lutely unknown in England and would be foreign to all custom 
and precedent. At the end of the course the Board publishes, 
in alphabetical order under each training college, a list of stu- 
dents who have qualified as certificated teachers. The list indi- 
cates : (a) the length of the period of training in each case; (b) 
the result of the approved final examination ; and (c) the sub- 
jects in which the student has gained distinction. The individual 
training colleges may also publish lists of their students in classes 
or in order of merit, but for these the Board assumes no respon- 
sibility. The college list is usually published in the annual report 
of the college.-^ 

The kind of life the student leads differs with the different 
types of college. In the day training colleges, the pressure of 
work makes it almost impossible to lead a normal student life. 
Only in the case of hostel students is the right kind of corporate 
life pursued. In residential colleges the situation is otherwise, 
for the students enjoy a community life in a very real sense. 

Many of the buildings of the residential colleges are old and 
were built in many instances before the spirit of the middle ages 
had entirely passed away. They are often surrounded by high 
walls. The huge doors and Gothic architecture seem entirely 
congruous to the semi-monastic type of life the students are 
forced to lead. Yet the life is a very happy one. The common 
room which is an outstanding feature of all the training colleges 
is the centre of the social life of the college. It is always 
comfortably and often luxuriously appointed. The introduction 

" Regulations for the Training of Elementary Teachers, 1909, pp. 
XIX., 16, 20, 34, 35. 39 and 40. 



go Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

of the common room idea both for students and faculty, would 
add greatly to the spirit of the social life in American 
normal schools. The sleeping accommodation is on the cubi- 
cle plan. In a few cases the women students assist with 
the minor domestic duties of the establishment. Thus at 
Edge Hill the students are required to sweep, dust and tidy 
the cubicles every morning and to keep the crockery, water 
bottle and glass clean. Each student, in rotation, is re- 
quired to undertake the following duties for a week — to sweep 
the corridor and to change the water in the fire bucket daily. 
The dining room where the students and staff meet for four 
meals each day, is another feature of the English college. The 
food is plain but nutritious. Beer is served at meals in a few of 
the older residential colleges for men. The staff usually dine at 
a raised table. In this and other ways there is a greater formality 
than there would be in similar situations in America, but this 
does not preclude the existence of a very real and healthy friend- 
ship between the students and staff. Many day colleges provide 
an excellent mid-day dinner for their students. At Goldsmiths' 
College, London, the students are compelled to take the excellent 
dinner which is provided at a cost of 6d (12c) per head. Resi- 
dential students are required to be punctual and to keep regular 
hours. Permission to stay out late must be secured beforehand 
from the tutor or proctor in charge. College bounds must be 
kept except on the half-day of the week, when the freedom of the 
town is permitted. 

The most striking feature of student-life in the residential col- 
leges in England is the amount of time devoted to athletics. 
Athletics to the English student does not mean that out of a 
college of 200 students, 189 habitually watch 11 players play a 
game; it really means that the whole 200 students actually play 
the game regularly. All the colleges have extensive playing fields. 
Some of these are at a considerable distance from the college 
buildings, but this does not seem to entail any hardship. A special 
compulsory fee is charged for athletics. Association football is 
the favorite game of the men students ; field hockey, of the women 
students. Rugby football, cricket, croquet, tennis and swimming 
are also entered into with great zest. It is not uncommon to 
find ten association football teams in a college all playing regular 
scheduled games. The great matches of the year are those be- 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 91 

tween past and present, and between the students and staff. Ter- 
ritorial army corps are found in most colleges for men. The 
regular exercise in the open air combined with an abundance of 
plain but wholesome food cannot fail to react beneficially upon 
the health of the future teacher. In the case of day colleges 
the pressure of the program of studies precludes the devotion of 
much time to games, although many of the colleges are coping 
with the problem in a very successful manner. 

A normal time-table for a denominational college would run 
somewhat as follows : 

6.30 A. M Rising bell 

7.30 A. M Chapel bell 

7.45 A. M Breakfast 

9.00 A. M. to 1. 00 P. M Lectures 

1. 00 P. M. to 1.30 P. M Dinner 

1.30 P. M. to 3.35 P. M Free time 

3.45 P. M. to 4.45 P. M Private study or lecture 

4.45 P. M. to 5.15 P. M Tea 

5.15 P. M. to 7.15 P. M Private study 

7.30 P. M. to 8.00 P. M Supper 

8.00 P. M. to 9.30 P. M Free time 

9.30 P. M Chapel 

10.15 P. M Lights out 

The time-table will vary on some days on account of special 
lectures. Saturday afternoon is always a half holiday. 

The college societies are very numerous and very virile. Most 
colleges have literary, debating and choral societies. Reading 
circles and Bible circles are also prominent. College magazines 
are produced by present students for the benefit of both past 
and present students. Every college has its alumni association. 
Each alumni association has several branches — one in each town 
or city in which a few of the alumni live. Reports of alumni 
meetings are given in the college magazines. On the occasion 
of great anniversaries of the college, the alumni from distant 
parts of the country assemble once more within their alma mater 
to celebrate the occasion. Old friendships are renewed and new 
ones made. The loyalty shown to an English training college 
is as great as that shown to a college fraternity in America. 

The sectarian character of many of the training colleges has 
been indicated in various parts of this chapter. This denomina- 
tional control dates back to 1839, when the Committee of Council, 



92 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

in spite of vigorous protests from the majority of its members, 
was forced to divide the fio,ooo ($50,000) grant of 1835 be- 
tween the British and Foreign School Society and National 
Society. The first severe blow at the religious domination of the 
training colleges was struck in 1890, when day training colleges 
of an undenominational character were first established. The 
establishment of day training colleges under the management of 
local education authorities from 1905 onwards was of a similar 
trend. In 1906, the regulations stated that all places in the col- 
leges were to be thrown open to all students without the imposi- 
tion of a religious test, but circumstances proved too strong for 
the government — a year later a compromise was made which 
permitted the religious denominations to reserve fifty per cent 
of the places in their colleges for students of their particular 
religious persuasion. This rule is still in force. The regulations 
for 1909 stated in chapter X that religious instruction was to 
be provided in all training colleges. Attendance was not to be 
obligatory, but any student who had attended a course of re- 
ligious instruction was to be entitled to a statement certifying the 
fact of such attendance. Before the regulations came into force, 
the Board withdrew the chapter.^* An extensively signed memo- 
rial on this subject from the members of the Educational Settle- 
ment Committee was forwarded to the President of the Board 
in December 1909. The petition ran as follows : 

" We, the undersigned members of the Educational Settle- 
ment Committee, and others, desiring that religious and moral 
teaching should be retained as an integral part of school life, 
under administrative arrangements favorable to sincerity and 
reality in such teaching and with careful regard for the various 
forms of conscientious belief among parents and teachers alike, 
beg leave to express the hope that the government will take steps 
to secure in all training colleges that those preparing themselves 
for the teaching profession should be given opportunity by volun- 
tary attendance at suitable classes, to qualify themselves if they 
so desire, by study and training for the work of giving religious 
and moral instruction in the schools. 

Moreover, while differing among ourselves as to the form 
which the national system of training colleges may ultimately 
take, we feel that in the present circumstances it is desirable to 
reach without further delay a firmer settlement of the questions 

^^ Circular 725 as to regulations for religious instruction in training 
colleges, July 19th, 1909. 



Training Colleges for Elementary School Teachers 93 

which have recently arisen, and we therefore take this opportun- 
ity of asking that the Board of Education will take into its care- 
ful consideration the advisability of permitting, under reasonable 
conditions and with the consent of the authorities concerned, the 
establishment of non-denominational hostels in connection with 
denominational training colleges, and vice versa, of denomina- 
tional hostels in connection with non-denominational training 
colleges." 

The requests seem plausible enough, but there is a growing con- 
viction in England that the present unfortunate religious difficul- 
ties of the schools and training colleges will not be settled until a 
complete secular system is established. 

Training colleges may offer courses specially designed to pre- 
pare students to become teachers in special elementary schools 
for the blind, or deaf, or mentally defective children. These 
courses are but rarely offered or taken. The rapid extension 
of schools for mentally defectives will probably result in a growth 
of special training facilities in the various training colleges. 
There is, however, a college for training teachers of the blind at 
Upper Norwood which is under the jurisdiction of the Board. 
It has accommodation for thirty-one students, although only six 
or thereabouts are in residence. The Board gave the College 
recognition in 1896 and granted the same subsidies as were 
granted to sighted students. The syllabus is nearly the same as 
in sighted training colleges, except for the special psychology 
and portions of special method. Many of the students have 
passed with distinction. One of them obtained the B.A. degree 
of London University. There seems, however, to be a prejudice 
against the employment of blind teachers, although they are em- 
ployed only in schools and classes for the blind. 

In conclusion, it may be stated that, while English training col- 
leges have many excellent features which are real contributions 
to the theory of training teachers, they have many serious defects. 
Especially is the general professional work neglected. To the 
excellent academic preparation now given to teachers should be 
added a sounder professional training. The introduction of 
courses in educational psychology and in history of education 
would be highly beneficial. But above all, the addition of well 
equipped and well staffed model, practice, and experimental 
schools to each of the training colleges would pave the way for 
the introduction of a more scientific method in the training of 
teachers for elementary schools. 



CHAPTER V 

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS OTHER THAN ELE- 
MENTARY 

A notable extension of the field of activity of the Board of 
Education is in the direction of the provision and supervision 
of training facilities for teachers other than elementary. That 
the control exercised is as yet only of a very limited character is 
seen by a study of the following cases : 

Secondary Teachers: In public schools tradition more value 
has been attributed to the personality and scholarship of the 
teacher than to the methods he employed and consequently the 
view that a teacher is born and not made has had a greater vogue 
in secondary than in elementary education. It is only within 
the past few decades that the necessity for giving professional 
training to the secondary teacher has been realized. From the 
beginning, women, because of the greater difficulty in obtaining 
positions, have been more concerned about training than men. 

Some of the early attempts to give training were most praise- 
worthy. The College of Preceptors has granted diplomas for 
secondary teachers from 1854; and in 1873 it instituted lectures 
on teaching. The Girls' Public Day School Company, founded 
in 1873, saw the need of training secondary mistresses for their 
schools and attempted to make provision for it.^ Another, and 
more successful attempt, was made by the Teachers' Training 
and Registration Society which founded the Maria Grey Train- 
ing College in 1878. Although the work of the college is divided 
into three parts — lower, higher, and kindergarten — the needs of 
secondary teachers are kept uppermost and are catered for ac- 
cordingly. The formation of the Teachers Training Syndicate 
by the Cambridge Senate in 1879, the institution of a secondary 
teachers' diploma examination in 1883 by the University of 
London, the establishment of the Oxford Delegacy for the train- 
ing of secondary teachers in 1896, and the consistent advocacy 

1 Balfour: Educational Systems, p. 184. 
94 



Training of Teachers Other than Elementary 95 

of the policy of training secondary teachers by the Headmasters' 
Conference and other associations of teachers from 1872 onwards 
have all contributed to the solution of this difficult problem. 

Previous to the Bryce Royal Commission on secondary educa- 
tion in 1895 the facilities for training secondary teachers had 
always been provided by private individuals and organizations, 
whose field, for the most part, was restricted to women. Very 
few of the colleges had suitable practising schools under their 
own direction, and many of them were wholly engaged in the 
preparation of candidates for external examinations. The Com- 
mission recommended that courses of special preparation with 
both theoretical and practical sides should be established. After 
examining many witnesses with respect to the relative merits of 
providing such courses by colleges for elementary teachers 
already in existence, or by the universities, or as a kind of ap- 
prenticeship in a properly appointed secondary school, the Com- 
mission finally concluded that on the whole it would be better 
for universities to provide the training although other institutions 
in the nature of residential colleges should be allowed to co- 
operate. Such training wherever given should only be open to 
students with high academic attainments and should be entirely 
professional in character.^ 

The inauguration of the teachers' register (since discontinued) 
and the passing of the Education Act of 1902, which brought 
secondary schools under the control of the central authority, both 
stimulated the efforts made to provide training colleges for sec- 
ondary teachers. That government was favorable to the move- 
ment is shown by the following article which has appeared annu- 
ally in the secondary school regulations since 1905 : " Where 
the Board think fit, they may, on consideration of the teaching 
staff as a whole, require that a certain proportion of all new 
appointments shall consist of persons who have gone through a 
course of training recognized by the Board for the purpose."^ 
Since the Board was demanding trained secondary teachers the 
logic of the situation required the Board to provide the necessary 
facilities. In 1908, therefore, the Board first made grants to 
certain institutions which trained secondary teachers. In course 

* Bryce: Royal Commission, 1895, I, pp. 70-71; 198-208; 321-323. 
' Secondary School Regulations, 1909, Art. 16. 



96 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

of time probably all the institutions which give training to sec- 
ondary teachers will come under the jurisdiction of the Board. 
For the present, however, most of the universities are content 
to continue their " diploma " courses for secondary teachers with- 
out submitting to inspection or interference from the Board. 

The diplomas of the universities are granted, with few excep- 
tions, for success in an examination given at the end of a post- 
graduate year of study in education. This year is devoted entirely 
to professional studies. Practice in teaching in properly equipped 
secondary schools is essential. This may run from a few hours, 
as in Oxford, to 250 hours, as in Liverpool. A few institutions 
such as the Cambridge Teachers' Training Syndicate and the Col- 
lege of Preceptors forego the year of training and grant diplomas 
merely upon examination. The University of London frames 
similar regulations, but for external students only. The diploma 
examinations invariably consist of two parts — a written exam- 
ination in principles and history of education, and a practical 
test before a body of examiners. Other subjects such as genetic 
psychology and school hygiene are added in a few cases. The 
diploma examinations of the College of Preceptors differ from 
the others in so far as three classes — Associate, Licentiate, 
and Fellow — are recognized.* 

The government regulations for the training of secondary 
teachers are but tentative beginnings. The total Parliamentary 
grant available is limited to £5,000 ($25,000). Consequently, 
the work is restricted to granting monetary assistance to colleges 
or secondary schools already established which give a purely 
professional training of not less than an academical year's dura- 
tion to not less than ten persons at a time. The grants, the 
Board explains, " are intended to promote the improvement of 
salaries and of teaching staff and they should be supplemented 
for this purpose by at least equal amount derived from other 
sources." Grants are made at the rate of £100 ($500) for each 
group of five students in training, providing that the total sum 
given to a single institution for the year shall not exceed £600 
($3,000). No religious tests are to be made. A high standard 
of academic attainment is required and after 191 1 a university 
degree (with the exception of a few other qualifications of equal 
merit) will be an essential prerequisite. The faculty must also 

^ Schoolmasters' Year Book, 1909, pp. 230-259. 



Training of Teachers Other than Elementary 97 

be well qualified ; at least one-half must have had successful sec- 
ondary school experience. The course of study must provide for 
teaching practice under adequate supervision. Its duration is 
not to be less than sixty days, of which forty are to be spent in 
secondary schools approved by the Board.^ 

The potentialities of this new departure of the Board are very 
great. The significance of it lies in the fact that for the first 
time in English history the government has undertaken the task 
of training secondary teachers. The undoubted result of it will 
be the strengthening of the secondary school system in what has 
hitherto been its weakest point. 

Teachers of Domestic Subjects: At the present time increased 
attention is being devoted to the teaching of domestic subjects 
in England and Wales. As grant earning subjects, the various 
branches of domestic science and art find a place in the curric- 
ulum of the elementary school as outlined by the code. All sec- 
ondary schools for girls are compelled to include instruction in 
domestic subjects or grants are withheld. To prevent the time- 
table from becoming overcrowded, the domestic science course 
may be substituted for science or mathematics other than arith- 
metic.® 

The movement for training teachers of domestic subjects be- 
gan in 1877. In that year the education department paid grants 
to colleges which included cookery in their curricula. The in- 
struction was given by a peripatetic teacher from the National 
Training School of Cookery. Such training was very unsatis- 
factory and when the department raised the standards in 1893 
the colleges were unable to meet the demands and consequently 
abandoned all attempts to teach it. Meanwhile, many private 
schools had arisen and were granting diplomas of various kinds. 
' )f these diplomas the department took cognizance in 1889. In 
1893 the department outlined the minimum requirements for the 
cookery diploma. In 1899 the standards were raised and a sys- 
tem of individual examinations for the diploma was established. 
This did not work satisfactorily, so inspection was substituted 
for examination in 1906. Many new branches such as house- 
wifery and laundry work were added at this time.^ 

° Regulations for the Training of Secondary Teachers, 1909. 

' Regulations for Secondary Schools, 1909, Art. 9. 

' Special Report on the Teaching of Cookery, 1907, pp. V-XVI. 



98 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The present training colleges for teachers of domestic sub- 
jects are situated in large towns and are under the control of 
the local education authorities. Candidates for the various di- 
plomas recognized by the Board must be eighteen years of age, 
must pass an entrance examination or give other evidence of 
satisfactory previous education, must produce a satisfactory medi- 
cal certificate, and must make a declaration that it is her bona- 
fide intention to become a teacher of domestic subjects in a 
school under the jurisdiction of the Board. Pupils may be ex- 
cused the declaration if they pay to the local authority 
such sum as it loses on the government grants. The staff must 
be adequate and efficient. No appointment can be made without 
the sanction of the Board. All members of the staff must have 
had at least two years of successful experience in teaching. The 
curriculum of a training school must be approved by the Board. 
In general, if the school is a large one, courses are offered in 
cookery, laundry-work, home dressmaking, needlework, millinery, 
housewifery, science and the theory and practice of education. 
All courses include practical work and practice in teaching. This 
teaching may be done in a local school, or, as at the Battersea 
Polytechnic Training School of Domestic Economy, in a prac- 
tising school connected with the training institution. 

The following diplomas are recognized by the Board : 

(i) A full diploma for cookery. 

(2) A limited diploma for cookery. 

(3) A diploma for laundry work. 

(4) A diploma for housewifery. 

(5) A diploma for combined domestic subjects. 

The diplomas, except the limited one for cookery, are of two 
classes. They are granted for excellence in work done during 
the course and for success in various examinations at the end 
of the course. 

The full diploma course in cookery is 480 hours ; the limited 
diploma course, which is confined to certificated teachers, is 280 
hours ; the diploma for laundry work is 460 hours ; the diploma 
for housewifery 300 hours ; and the diploma for combined domes- 
tic subjects 1,600 hours. This latter is normally a two years' 
course. About one-eighth of the time is devoted to teaching or 
observation of teaching. After two years of successful experi- 



Training of Teachers Other than Elementary 99 

ence as a teacher the Board endorses the certificate. All diplo- 
mas satisfy the regulations and codes of the Board with respect 
to the qualifications of teachers of domestic science. The ex- 
penses of the training- schools are met by students' fees and 
grants from the Board which are given for satisfactory com- 
pletion of a diploma course.^ Many local authorities grant 
scholarships which cover the cost of maintenance and fees. Lon- 
don grants nine such scholarships, besides ten pupil-teacherships 
in handicrafts, for girls between the ages of fourteen and eigh- 
teen. 

In 1907-8 there were in England and Wales eighteen training 
schools recognized by the Board, with a total of 925 students in 
training." 

Teachers of Art: The only training college for Art teachers 
directly maintained by the Board of Education is the Royal Col- 
lege of Art, London. Courses of instruction are given in each 
of the four schools into which the institution is divided — the 
school of architecture ; the school of ornament and design ; the 
school of decorative painting; and the school of sculpture and 
modelling. A student who qualifies in all four schools is granted 
the Associateship of the College (A.R.C.A.) ; a student qualify- 
ing in one of the schools is granted the Schools Associateship. 

Other qualifications for art teachers are the Art Class Teacher's 
and the Art Master's Certificates. The requirements for the Art 
Class Teacher's Certificates are (a) the satisfactory completion 
of a number of works of art, and (b) a first class at the Board's 
examinations in geometrical drawing ; perspective ; memory draw- 
ing in pencil, chalk, or brush, of plant forms treated flatly; model 
drawing, outline ; drawing in light and shade from a cast ; and 
elementary design. The Art Master's Certificate may have from 
one to four parts. The first part is granted for satisfactory 
completion of a number of works of Art together with a first 
class at the Board's examinations in the following: architecture ; 
drawing from life; anatomy; painting ornament; principles of 
ornament ; advanced design ; modelling the head from the life ; 
and advanced modelling design. Successful candidates in the 
former examinations may sit for further certificates in group II 



' Regulations for the Training of Teachers of Domestic Subjects, 1909. 
' Statistics of Pubhc Education, 1907-8, Tables 126 and 127. 



loo Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

(architecture, design and applied art) ; in group III (figure 
drawing and painting) ; or in group IV (modelling). 

Kindergarten Teachers: Unfortunately for English education 
the terms kindergarten teacher and infant school teacher are by- 
no means synonymous. The spirit of the kindergarten has barely 
touched the English infant schools. It is only within the past 
two or three years that the Board of Education has thought fit 
to encourage, within the walls of the training colleges for elemen- 
tary teachers, special courses of training for kindergarten 
teachers. But no special diploma for satisfactory completion of 
these courses is as yet granted by the Board. 

The qualifications for kindergarten teachers recognized 
throughout England and Wales are the elementary and higher 
certificate of the National Froebel Union. There are two parts 
to the higher certificate. The subjects of examination for the 
elementary certificate and Part I of the higher certificate are: 
(a) knowledge of child nature, including practical observation 
of children, and the elementary laws of psychology; (b) nature 
knowledge; (c) educational handwork; (d) class teaching, in- 
cluding criticism lessons; (e) theory of music and singmg; (^) 
blackboard drawing and brushwork ; (g) physical exercises and 
simple laws of health; (h) the general principles and methods of 
Froebel and Pestalozzi ; and (i) practical geometry. For Part II 
of the higher certificate the same subjects are studied in greater 
detail with the addition of Froebel's principles as they are set 
forth in the " Education of Man " and the " Mutter and Kose- 
lieder." Preparation for these examinations may be obtained in 
many private high schools and colleges. The chief institution 
for the purpose, and the one which sets the standard for all the 
others, is the Froebel Educational Institute in London. A three 
year course is provided — one year for the elementary and two 
years for the higher certificate. The present tendency is to 
break away from the stereotyped '* gifts " of Froebel, while re- 
taining the spirit of his kindergarten. 

Teachers of Educational Handzvork: There are, at the present 
time, no courses of training provided by or inspected by the 
Board of Education. The Board of Education is represented, 
however, by two members upon the Board of Examinations for 
Educational Handwork, which endeavors to standardize the 



Training of Teachers Other than Elementary loi 

qualifications of teachers of handwork. This Board of Exam- 
inations, founded in 1898, was estabHshed to undertake such 
work as the following: 

"(a) To draw up a list of qualified examiners in the various 
branches of Educational Handwork, after consultation with the 
Associations represented upon it. 

(b) To issue, after examination, certificates to teachers and to 
approve schemes of work for such examinations. 

(c) To keep a register of other teachers who, in the opinion of 
the Board, are properly qualified to give instruction." 

The council of the Board is composed of twenty-three mem- 
bers representative of the following organizations : 

10 representatives of the Educational Handwork Association 
2 representatives of the Board of Education 
I representative of the Association of Head Mistresses 
I representative of the Association of Training Colleges 
5 members co-opted to represent the Central Welsh Board 
4 members co-opted to represent other educational interests. 

Examinations in kindergarten handwork, clay modelling, 
brush drawing, blackboard drawing, color work, paper cutting 
and mounting, cardboard modelling, woodwork, wood-carving, 
metal work, repousse (metal) work and school gardening are 
held by the Board. Only those candidates who can produce 
satisfactory evidence as a teacher, such for example as is af- 
forded by the possession of the elementary teachers' certificate, 
and who have completed courses of instruction (including prac- 
tical work) under a teacher recognized by the Board are per- 
mitted to sit for the examinations. The examination is divided into 
two parts: (a) drawing and theory, and (b) practical work. 
In both parts at least two-thirds the maximum marks must be 
obtained for a pass. Distinction is granted for special proficiency 
in any subject. Two grades of certificate are granted — the 
Teacher's Certificate and the Teacher's Higher Certificate. The 
certificates in woodwork and metal-work are recognized as quali- 
fications by the Board of Education under the various codes and 
regulations. The Board is doing a very important work, although 
as yet it is not very extensive. Its extent may be judged from 
the fact that in 1908 for woodwork, a subject in which more 
certificates were granted than in any other, only 100 Teacher's 



I02 



Training of Teachers in England and Wales 



Certificates and 28 Teacher's Higher Certificates were issued for 
the whole country. ^° 

Teachers of Physical Education: During the past decade, evi- 
dence has been accumulating that there is a serious amount of 
physical unfitness among the working classes of England. Par- 
liament has become aware of the fact and by the Education 
(Provision of Meals) Act of 1906 and section 13 of the Educa- 
tion (Administrative Provisions) Act of 1907, which empowers 
local authorities to provide vacation schools, vacation classes and 
play-centres, and enjoins them to provide for the medical in- 
spection of school children under their charge, has taken steps 
to remedy the evil. Government does not, however, yet provide 
special training facilities for the training of teachers of physical 
education. The nearest approach to this is in a grant which it 
makes to the Physical Training College for women — a constitu- 
ent part of the South Western Polytechnic at Chelsea — although 
the ordinary elementary school teachers must take courses in 
physical training while in residence in a training college. 

The work of training gymnastic teachers is left to private 
residential colleges, the first of which was opened at Dartford 
in 1885. The students are usually admitted at eighteen years of 
age for a two years course of instruction and training. For 
the most part, a modified Ling or Swedish system is taught. 
Chelsea teaches both the Swedish and the German systems, while 
Southport has built up a course of gymnastics which is based 
upon movements found in the British national games. The 
branches studied comprise all or part of the following : — anatomy, 
theory and practice of educational gymnastics, theory of move- 
ments in gymnastics, massage and medical gymnastics, physi- 
ology, hygiene, elocution, dancing, fencing, swimming and various 
outdoor games. Moreover, practice teaching is compulsory for 
all. This is usually done, with the consent of the Board of Edu- 
cation, in a neighboring public elementary school. The fees are 
high ; the normal charge for an academic year of thirty-four 
weeks is £go ($450). 

The g}^mnastic teachers have banded together and have 
founded the Incorporated British College of Physical Edu- 
cation — an examining body which is endeavoring to promote 

^^ Regulations and Syllabus of the Board of Examinations for Educa- 
tional Handwork, 1909. 



Training of Teachers Other than Elementary 103 

physical education in various ways. The members (collectively) 
are of three kinds — Members, Licentiates, and Associates. Mem- 
bers are instructors actively engaged in teaching who have 
passed the prescribed examination of the College. Licentiates 
are those who have passed a prescribed examination but are not 
engaged in teaching. Associates are those interested in educa- 
tion who pay the necessary dues. Other examining bodies are 
the National Society of Physical Education and the Gymnastic 
Teachers' Institute. These three institutions are very flourish- 
ing, and, with the revival of interest in physical training, they 
will probably play an increasingly important part in the training 
of a special section of teachers. 

The above examples fully illustrate the fact that in the field 
of secondary education, of education in domestic and other sub- 
jects, there is an evolution in progress very similar to the 
evolution which took place in the field of elementary education. 
Formerly, elementary education was a private matter; the train- 
ing of teachers was a private matter also. But the time came 
when the state realized that elementary education and the train- 
ing of elementary teachers was too vital a matter to be left to 
the good will of a few voluntary societies. Consequently, the 
duty of providing these things was taken over by the nation at 
large. In much the same way, private initiative founded the 
institutions for the training of secondary and domestic science 
teachers. These institutions are now being rapidly brought under 
the control of the Board of Education. The time is not far 
distant when the nation, for its own safety, will have to control 
and supervise practically all the education given within its 
borders. How to exercise this supervision without destroying 
the individuality and initiative of its people is the problem that 
England, and all other democratic nations, will have to solve. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE TEACHER IN SERVICE 

The object of the present chapter is to give some indication 
of the kind of professional hfe the EngHsh teacher leads when 
in actual service. To this end the following topics will be dis- 
cussed : — the types of elementary schools ; the classes of teachers ; 
powers and duties of the various classes of teachers ; appoint- 
ment and dismissal of teachers ; salaries of teachers ; supervision 
of teachers ; reading circles ; summer and sessional courses ; 
teachers' associations and other educational organizations. 

The Types of Elementary Schools: The dominant type of ele- 
mentary school is the co-educational one department school with 
two or more teachers. The one teacher school — the typical 
school of America — is all but unknown in England. In 1908, out 
of a total of 20,612 schools in England and Wales 13.929 were 
of one department only.^ In the towns and larger villages it 
is customary to divide the school into departments. Of the 
latter the infants', boys', and girls' departments are the most 
important. Frequently these three departments are housed under 
one roof but on separate floors ; only seldom are they segregated 
into separate schools. The head teacher may either be respon- 
sible for the whole school or for a single department only. The 
Board does not, as a rule, recognize a head teacher who is 
responsible for more than 550 children. In a few instances the 
schools are divided into junior and senior divisions, in which case 
they correspond to the primary and grammar grades of America. 

Classes of Teachers: The following table gives for 1908 in 
England and Wales the classes of teachers, with the number in 
each class, recognized by the Board, together with the number 
of pupils in average attendance for which each teacher is con- 
sidered equivalent in the staffing of the school. - 

' Board of Education: Educational Statistics, 1907-8, pp. 28 and 314 
'The table is made up from statistics given on page 25 of the Red 

Code for 1909; and pp. 29 and 315 of the Board's Educational Statistics 

for 1907-8. 

104 



The Teacher in Service 
TABLE III 



105 



Class of teacher 


No. of 
men 


No. of 
women 


Total 

men 

and 

women 


No. of 
children in 

average 
attendance 
for which 

each 
teacher is 
equivalent 


Head teacher 


13-865 

17.374 

5,286 


18,086 
42,232 
38-551 


31-951 
59.606 

43.837 


35 


Certificated assistant teacher. . . 
Uncertificated assistant teacher. 
Student -teacher^ 


60 

35 
20 


Supplementary teacher 

Provisional assistant teacher. . . 
Pupil -teacher* 


195 

351 

5.167 


18,437 

1.530 

16,553 


18,632 

1,881 

21 , 720 


20 
20 







It will be seen from the table that, as in America, although 
there is a preponderance of women teachers, men teachers obtain 
a greater proportion of the better positions. Many of the women 
teachers are married.* The employment of married women is 
becoming a serious problem in England. Many authorities, such 
as Widnes. Manchester, Devonshire, etc., make the marriage of 
a woman teacher equivalent to her resignation. Such actions are 
being strenuously opposed by the majority of the women, 
although, in general, the Board of Education supports the coun- 
cil making the exclusion rule. 

The qualifications of a head-teacher are threefold: (i) he must 
be certificated, i.e., have passed the certificate examination of the 
Board or its recognized equivalent; (2) he must have had this 
certificate endorsed as having completed satisfactorily twenty- 
four consecutive months of service as an elementary school 
teacher; and (3) he must have had a regular course of training 
in a training college. In the smaller rural schools these qualifi- 
cations are not insisted upon, although the tendency everywhere 
is to raise the standards as high as possible. 



' The student-teacher is of too recent an origin to be included in the 
1907-8 statistics: the pupil-teacher no longer counts on the staflf of 
the school. (See Circular 709.) 

* In London about one-third of the women teachers are married. School 
Government Chronicle. Feb. 23, 1907. 



io6 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The head-teacher in England differs from the principal in 
America in this important respect, viz. : he possesses a greater 
degree of both freedom and responsibility. In framing the 
course of study and drawing up the time-table of the school 
these features are especially prominent. In America the course 
of study is usually imposed upon the school from some central 
authority ; in England it is invariably drawn up by the head- 
teacher of the school. It must, however, be approved by the 
inspector, but if it conforms to the rather elastic regulations of 
the code such approval is never withheld. Theoretically, there- 
fore, there are as many courses of study as there are schools or 
departments ; in actual practice, owing to a growth of super- 
vision, the courses of study for any given local area approximate 
a norm although the variability is still very great. This freedom 
of action constitutes at once the strength and weakness of the 
English school system. The strong progressive head teacher, to 
the benefit of his school, can experiment and modify his curric- 
ulum almost to any extent he pleases ; the weak head-teacher 
without zeal or initiative tends to stagnate in conservative in- 
efficiency. 

Other features of head teachership in England are the super- 
vision of the training of pupil-teachers and student-teachers, the 
responsibility for the general control and supervision of 
the instruction and discipline of the school, and the 
responsibilities connected with the clerical work of the school 
such as the filling in of returns, and the keeping of attendance 
and other records. The clerical work of the school, which tends 
to become excessive, is performed personally by the head teacher 
of the school. This work, which for the most part could be as 
efficiently done by a low salaried secretary, takes the head teacher 
away from his more important teaching and supervisory duties. 
If peripatetic teachers are attached to a school no disturbance 
of the authority of the head teacher is permitted. The head 
teacher is encouraged by the Board to teach the upper standards 
(grades) so far as time permits, but in a large school this de- 
sirable condition cannot always be secured.^ 

The certificated assistant teacher may either be trained or un- 
trained. In the former case a regular course at a training col- 

• Red Code 1909, pp. 20-22, 53-56. 
Buff Code 1909, sec. II, pp. 16-20. 



The Teacher in Seivice 107 

lege must have been pursued ; in both cases the certificate exam- 
ination or its equivalent must have been passed." From the body 
of certificated assistant teachers, head teachers are almost invari- 
ably chosen. 

Uncertificated teachers must have passed the Preliminary Cer- 
tificate examination or an approved equivalent before they can 
be recognized as a part of the staff of the school. By continuing 
their studies they may prepare for the certificate examination and 
become untrained certificated teachers. A subsequent year in 
residence at a training college then fulfils the Board's require- 
ments as to professional training. 

The supplementary teacher — the great blot on the English 
Elementary School system — was brought into existence by the 
poverty of the voluntary schools. This poverty was removed by 
the Education Act of 1902, but it was not until 1909 that serious 
steps were taken to abolish this class of teacher. The only quali- 
fications of a supplementary teacher are that she shall have at- 
tained the age of eighteen years and have been success- 
fully vaccinated. The portion of the regulations which states 
that they are " specially approved by the inspector for their 
capacity in teaching " has been practically a dead letter. The 
drastic regulations of 1909 will have important effect on the 
question of their continuance in the teaching profession. These 
regulations restrict their sphere of action to the department for 
infants or, in case of the small rural school, to the lowest 
class of the department for older scholars. Men are no 
longer recognized as supplementary teachers, and women 
supplementary teachers already engaged in teaching the upper 
standards are given until 1914 to obtain further qualifications, 
failing which they must either be relegated to the infants' de- 
partment or must seek other vocations. Not more than two 
supplementary teachers can be employed in a school. The local 
authority may compel them to pursue courses of study leading 

' For the list of equivalent examinations see schedule I. A of the elemen- 
tary school code. Attention is here drawn to the fact that certification 
by passing the final examination for a degree of a university within the 
British Empire with the addition of a teachers' diploma obtained after 
an extra year's residence at a university is becoming more and more 
usual. 



io8 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

to increased professional qualification. As a result of the new 
regulations a review of all supplementary teachers is now in 
progress. 

A provisional assistant teacher is a pupil-teacher who is recog- 
nized for one year after the termination of his pupil-teachership 
engagement.'' 

Student-teachers and pupil-teachers were fully treated in Chap- 
ter III. The latter are no longer counted on the effective staflf 
of a school. 

Appointment and Dismissal of Teachers: The appointment 
of elementary school teachers in England is in the hands of the 
local authority. These powers may be delegated to the educa- 
tion committee, or to a sub-committee of the education commit- 
tee, or to the manager of a school, but in every case the appoint- 
ment must be sanctioned and confirmed by the local authority. 
All elementary school teachers are appointed under stamped writ- 
ten agreements. Failure to comply with this regulation, which 
is retrospective in its working, may cause the Board to withhold 
the grants to the school. It is customary to advertise all vacan- 
cies. In some of the regulations adopted by local authorities 
the actual papers in which the advertisements are to appear are 
designated. The application with testimonials are generally con- 
sidered by a small sub-committee. The more unsuitable appli- 
cants are eliminated. The best three are then requested to ap- 
pear before the committee when the final choice is made. Notifi- 
cation of the appointment is sent to the Board after its ratifica- 
tion by the local authority. In voluntary schools the managers 
take all the necessary steps to fill a vacant office. After the 
choice is made, they submit the name, qualifications and testi- 
monials to the local authority. No appointment is complete until 
the consent of the local authority has been signified. The consent 
may not be withheld except on educational grounds.'' The 
tenure of teachers is on the whole more secure in England than 
in America. Moreover, the teacher cannot be required " to per- 
form any duties such as are connected with the work of a public 

' Circular 709: May, 1909. 

Red Code 1909, pp. 53-59. 

Buff Code 1909, sec. II, pp. 16-21. 

Handbook of Education, pp. 452-457. 
* Education Act, 1902, sec. 7. (c) 



The Teacher in Service 109 

elementary school and with the instruction of pupil-teachers and 
probationers, or to abstain, outside of the school hours, from any 
occupations which do not interfere with the due performance of 
his duties as teacher of a public elementary school." Rarely is 
a teacher dismissed from office except for gross misconduct or 
rank inefficiency. This was not always the case and a teacher 
can still be dismissed from a voluntary school on grounds con- 
nected with the giving of religious instruction in the school. In 
case of dismissal the usual notice given is three months for a 
head teacher and one month for an assistant. Right of appeal 
to the local authority or even to the ultimate authority — the 
Board of Education — is always conceded. 

In secondary schools the usual method of appointment of teachers 
is similar to the one in vogue in American private schools. Prior to 
the passing of the Endowed Schools (Masters) Act in July, 1908, 
the assistant master was often little more than a personal servant 
to the head teacher, liable to be removed by him at pleasure, 
and liable also to find his tenure of office abruptly terminated 
on the removal of the head teacher. This state of things is 
rapidly passing away chiefly owing to the growing control of the 
Board of Education over the secondary education of England." 

Salaries of Teachers: As in all other countries the salaries of 
teachers in England and Wales, while continually improving, 
are still very unsatisfactory in amount. The standard they reach 
is lower than the general standard in other corresponding walks 
of life. This state of affairs prevents many of the brighter young 
men and women from entering the teaching profession in spite 
of its security of tenure and its long vacations. 

The salaries of elementary teachers, which are customarily 
paid at the end of each calendar month, are usually fixed by local 
scales which provide for a fixed minimum, annual increments, 
and a fixed maximum for the teachers in a given area. Scales 
in different localities differ in amount although the variation is 
not so great as in America. Cities pay larger salaries than rural 
districts ; London and neighborhood pay higher salaries than 
other parts of the country. The salaries of men are invariably 
higher than those of women. 

' Handbook of Education, pp. 452-458; 463-471 ; 564-571. Elementary 
School Code, 1909. Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters; 
a review of its work, aims and m.ethods, 1909; p. 6. 



no Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The National Union of Teachers, a thoroughly representative 
organization of elementary school teachers, has been very active 
in the matter of standardization of teachers' salaries. The fol- 
lowing is the scale of salaries adopted by the Union : 

Head teachers 

" The minimum salary of a certificated headmaster should not 
be less than £150 ($750), and of a certificated headmistress not 
less than ii20 ($600). 

Provincial Class Teachers 

Men. — Minimum £90 ($450) ; maximum ii8o ($900), by an- 
nual automatic increments of £5 ($25) to iioo ($500), and then 
by annual automatic increments of iio ($50) to the maximum. 

Women. — Alinimum £80 ($400) ; maximum £145 ($725), by 
annual automatic increments of £5 ($25) to £115 ($575), and 
then by annual automatic increments of £10 ($50) to the maxi- 
mum. 

Class Teachers in London and Neighborhood 

Men. — Minimum £100 ($500) ; maximum £220 ($1100), by 
annual automatic increments of £5 ($25) to £110 ($550), and 
then by annual automatic increments of £10 ($50) to the maxi- 
mum. 

Women. — Alinimum £90 ($450) ; maximum £175 ($875), by 
annual automatic increments of £5 ($25) to £125 ($625), and 
then by annual automatic increments of £10 ($50) to the maxi- 
mum. 

Girls' and infants' mistresses of the same professional status 
working in the same school should be paid the same rate of 
salary. 

Class mistresses working in mixed or boys' departments should 
receive the same rate of salary as the class masters in the same 
department. 

In determining the initial salary to be paid to any teacher under 
this scale regard shall be had to years of service rendered by 
such teacher under any local authority."^" 

That the standards set by this scale are not reached is seen 
from the following tables. Table IV gives the scales of salaries 
in active operation in a few typical local areas. 

'" Handbook of Education, p. 541. 



The Teacher in Service 



TABLE IV 
Salaries in Pounds Sterling of Certified Assistant Teachers 



Year of 
service 



London 



Men 



Wom- 



Manchester 



Worn- 
Men en 



Crewe 



Worn- 
Men en 



Lancashire 



Men 



Wom- 



Bedfordshire 



Men 



Worn 



3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

Maximum . . . . 
35 years' total 



lOO 

los 
no 
117 

125 

132 
140 
147 
ISS 
162 
170 
177 
200 
6, 220 



90 

94 

98 

102 

106 

no 

114 

118 

122 

126 

130 

134 

ISO 

.770 



90 
95 
loo 
105 
no 
115 
120 
125 
130 
13s 
140 
I4S 
ISO 
,860 



75 
80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

no 



no 
3.710 



100 
los 
no 
115 
120 

125 

130 
13s 

140 



140 
4,720 



85 

90 

95 
100 
105 
no 
115 
120 



120 
4,060 



85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

no 

1 20 
125 
130 
13s 
140 
4,510 



70 

75 

80 

8S 

90 

95 

100 

los 

no 



1 10 
3,670 



91 

94 

97 

100 

103 

106 

109 

112 

115 

118 

130 

, 190 



75 
78 
81 
84 
87 
90 
93 
95 



Note: London County is a typical cosmopolitan city; Manchester 
and Crewe are industrial centres; Lancashire is a densely populated 
county; while Bedfordshire is an agricultural county. Deviations from 
the above scales are sometimes m.ade for special qualifications. 

Tables V and VI show the distribution of salaries actually 
paid to head teachers in 1906-7. 

TABLE V 

Table of Frequencies Showing Distribution of Salaries of Head 

Teachers in Public Elementary Schools 

1906-7 



Amount in pounds sterling 



Under 50 

50- 99- 
100-149 . 
150-199. 
200—249 • 
250-299. 
300-349- 
350-399- 
400-449. 

450-499- 
500-549. 

550-599- 
600—649 - 




The median salary for headmasters is ii59 ($795) ; median 
salary for headmistresses is £112.5 ($562.50). 

Table VI shows the same salaries in steps of £10 from £50 
to £199. 



112 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

TABLE VI 

Table of Frequencies Showing Distribution of Salaries (Between 

£^o AND £199) OF Head Teachers in Public 

Elementary Schools 

1906—7 



Amount in pounds sterling 



Frequency 



Men 


Women 


3 


57 


1 1 


401 


48 . 


1282 


162 


2296 


467 


2252 


903 


2071 


1020 


1718 


"59 


1525 


1069 


1315 


738 


723 


845 


762 


777 


526 


575 


272 


597 


243 


537 


152 



50- 59 

60- 69 

70- 79 

80- 89 

90- 99 

100-109 

110-119 

120-129 

130-139 
140-149 

150-159 
160-169 
170-179 
180-189 
190-199 



The mode salary for men is therefore from £i20-£i2g ($600- 
$645) ; for women iSo-fQQ ($400-$495). 

The statistics of salaries given below were compiled by the 
National Education Association from the statistics of the Board 
as published for 1906-7-8. 



Number 

of 
Teachers 

23 

12,359 

139 



15 > 440 



4.023 



TABLE VII 

Salaries of Teachers 

Men Teachers in England 

Status and Salaries 

Head Teachers in Higher Elementary Schools; 
salaries from under ;^2oo to over £s°° 

Heads (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 
Schools ; salaries from under £60 to over ;£4oo . 

Assistants in Higher Elementary Schools; salaries 
from under /^loo to over £400 

Assistants (certificated) in ordinary Elenientary 
Schools; salaries from under £^0 to over £250 . 

Heads (uncertificated) in ordinary Elementary 
Schools; salaries froin under 70 to over ;^i2o. . 

Assistants (uncertificated) in ordinary Elemen- 
tary Schools; salaries from under £40 to over 
;£25o 



Salary 


£324 


($1620) 


£it?> 


( $840) 


£^(>o 


( $800) 


£^^9 


( $595) 


£82 


( $410) 


£67 


( S335) 



The Teacher in Service 



"3 



Niunber 

of 
teachers 
I 
1. 311 



1 ,094 



578 



Men Teachers in Wales 

Average 
Status and Salaries salary 

Head Teacher in Higher Elementary School ;£2oo ($1000) 

Heads (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under ;^6o to over ;^3oo . £1^2, ( $715) 

Assistants in higher Elementary Schools; salaries 

from under £12^, to over £150 £,^22 ( $610) 

Assistants (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under £60 to over £^To . £,110 ( $550) 

Heads (uncertificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under £60 to over £()o. . £66 ( $330) 

Assistants (uncertificated) in ordinary Elemen- 
tary Schools; salaries from under £^0 to over 
;£i2o £61 ($305) 



Number 

of 
teachers 
12 

16,456 

125 

39,269 

319 
31.508 



Women Teachers in England 

Average 
Status and Salaries salary 

Head Teachers in higher Elementary Schools; 

salaries from under ^250 to over ;£3oo £2()'] ($1355) 

Heads (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under £$0 to over ;£3oo . £iit ( $580) 

Assistants in higher Elementary Schools; salaries 

from under £-]^ to over ^^200 £125 ( $625) 

Assistants (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under £^0 to over £t^(>o . £86 ( $430) 

Heads (uncertificated) in ordinary Elementary 

Schools; salaries from under £$0 to over ;£ioo . ;^65 ( $325) 

Assistants (uncertificated) in ordinary Elemen- 
tary Schools; salaries from under ;^40 to over 
;£i40 £S4 ( $270) 



Number 

of 
teachers 
Nil. 
1 , 129 



1 ,642 



57 



3.294 



Women Teachers in Wales 

Status and Salaries 

Head Teachers in Elementary Schools 

Heads (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 
Schools; salaries from under £50 to over ;^2oo . 

Assistants in higher Elementary Schools; salaries 
from under £'js to over £75 

Assistants (certificated) in ordinary Elementary 
Schools; salaries from under ;£4o to over £^30. 

Heads (uncertificated) in ordinary Elementary 
Schools; salaries from under ;^6o to over ;£8o . . 

Assistants in ordinary Elementary Schools; sala- 
ries from under ^^40 to over £1 10 



Average 
salary 



£^07 ($535) 

;£78 ($390) 

£78 ($390) 

£(>3 ($315) 

£51 ($255^ 



Scales are unsatisfactory from many points of view ; they are 
usually inelastic and do not make provision for special excellence 
either along academic or professional lines ; in the case of head 
teachers the salaries are dependent on the number of scholars in 
average attendance, a procedure which severely handicaps the 
small school ; in large areas values vary greatly and salaries 



114 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

ought to be adjusted accordingly; and some of the scales do not 
provide for payment of salary during illness. 

Published scales of salaries for secondary school teachers are 
met with but rarely. The Incorporated Association of Assistant 
Masters in Secondary Schools thinks that a scale which provides 
for the following would be " satisfactory : (a) An initial salary 
of not less than £150 ($/^5o) a year for any master, rising by 
annual increments of iio ($50) a year to at least £300 ($1,500) 
a year; (b) An initial salary of not less than £120 ($600) a year 
for a mistress with a university degree and training, rising £10 
($50) per annum for the first two years, afterwards £5 ($25) 
per annum up to a minimum of £160 ($800) ; (c) That larger 
salaries should be offered to teachers of exceptional abilities and 
attainments, and to holders of posts involving special responsi- 
bility. 

Although teachers' salaries in England and Wales are far from 
satisfactory they are, when taken on the whole, intermediate in 
amount between those of Germany and America. The real ad- 
vantage of English over American teachers in this respect is 
increased by the difference of values between free trade England 
and protectionist America.^^ 

Supervision of Teachers: It was pointed out in Chapter I 
that supervision, as it is understood in America, is quite unknown 
in England. Only in a few populous centres like London is 
there an adequate supervisory force. This throws great respon- 
sibilities upon the head teacher of the school for in the majority 
of cases the only oversight exercised is by his Majesty's inspec- 
tor in a series of intermittent visits. This responsibility has 
seldom been abused, but there is a growing feeling that careful 
supervision is necessary if the standard of efficiency is to be 
maintained or further progress made. The supervision of the 
assistant teachers in the school is wholly in the hands of the 
head teacher. 



'* Handbook of Education, pp. 471-542. 
Assistant Teachers' Handbook, pp. 51,89. 

Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters; review of its work, 
aims and methods, pp. 8-10. 

Commissioner's report, Vol. II, 1908, pp. 1057-1075. 
Board of Education: Statistics, 1906-7-8. 



The Teacher in Service 115 

Reading circles: Reading circles for teachers in which pro- 
fessional literature is read and discussed are unknown in Eng- 
land. Still, many of the teachers are connected with the National 
Home Reading Union which has for its purpose the guiding of 
readers in the use of books and of directing self-education. This 
great reading guild was founded in 1889 and at the present time 
is affiliated with two other societies — the Co-operative Holidays 
Association and the Home Music Study Union. The member- 
ship is composed of individual readers and members of circles. 
In 1909 there were 4,410 individual members, 3,734 members 
of circles, 669 members of the Home Music Study Union and 
about 12,000 members of the Co-operative Holidays Association. 
In addition there were about 30,000 school members. The school 
members are children of school age who are formed into read- 
ing circles by their teachers. The payment of the teachers' fee 
secures the recognition of the scholars in his circle as members 
of the Union. This field of endeavor has been heartily supported 
by the Board of Education. In circular 533 the Board com- 
mends the work of the National Home Reading Union and pro- 
poses the following methods of co-operation between the Union 
and the elementary schools. 

" I. Teachers in elementary schools and pupil-teacher centres 
might become members of the Society upon the payment by local 
education authorities of is. 6d. per annum, and thereby receive 
gratis the selected list of books recommended, the monthly maga- 
zine, and be entitled to obtain additional copies of it at a small 
extra cost for use in the schools. 

2. Classes might be formed into ' home-reading circles ' 
under the leadership of the teacher. 

3. The selected books of the Union might be adopted as class 
reading books in the higher standards, and the children allowed 
to take the books home. 

4. Scholars might be encouraged, after leaving school or the 
pupil-teacher centre, to join the National Home Reading Union 
' reading circles.' 

5. The books in the National Home Reading Union list might 
be correlated with the subjects prescribed in Evening Schools 
in which language and literature or other suitable subjects are 
included in the course, and ' reading circles ' be formed in con- 
nection with such schools. "^^ 



"Circular 533 to local education authorities: National Home Read- 
ing Union. 



ii6 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

In London alone, where the Education Committee generously 
pays the dues of the teachers, there are 25,000 school members. 

To assist the members in the various courses the council of 
the Union publishes monthly magazines giving hints as to way 
in which, and the purpose for which, the books, drawn up by 
experts in the various fields, should be read. Short essays are 
included as also are questions set to test the grasp of the sub- 
ject-matter of the books. The work of the Union in connection 
with the public libraries is deserving of mention. Several li- 
braries through the intervention of the Union now work in con- 
junction with the schools in the locality. A " Reader's Review " 
is published by the Union to guide readers in the public libraries 
in their choice of books and subjects for reading. The work 
of the Union is expanding rapidly and bids fair soon to play a 
most important part in the lives of the teachers and scholars of 
England. ^^ 

A course of home reading is conducted by the Parents' 
National Education Union. The reading is confined to the dis- 
tinctive teaching of the Union and therefore to the volumes of 
the Home Education Series, the contents of which have been 
specially prepared for the use of the Union. ^* 

Summer and Sessional Courses for Teachers: England and 
Wales have remarkably equable climates which permit of school 
being held at any time of the year. Consequently, long vaca- 
tions, due to excessive summer heat, are not a necessity as they 
are in America. The summer vacation of the elementary school 
is of three or four weeks' duration ; the vacation of the secondary 
school is from five to eight weeks. These short holidays preclude 
the development of summer schools to any great extent and 
therefore the further education of the teacher must, for the most 
part, be obtained in other ways. As a matter of fact it is only 
within the last decade that the necessity for the progressive edu- 
cation of the teacher in service has been realized or any facilities 
provided. 

The nearness of the continent has promoted an interest in 
holiday courses for instruction in modern languages which are 



"National Home Reading Union Report, 1908-9, and other publi- 
cations. 

'* Prospectus: Parents' National Educational Union. 



The Teacher in Service 117 

largely attended by teachers, but in many instances, it must be 
confessed, the " hoHday " is more in evidence than the " courses." 
The foreign hohday courses in 1909 were held in the following 
countries — six in Germany, one in Austria, three in Switzer- 
land, one in Spain, one in Italy, and eighteen in France. The 
responsibility for the courses is in the hands of various organiza- 
tions, some British, some continental, others international in 
character. The Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland 
organized courses at Neuwied and Liibeck in Germany, at San- 
tander in Spain, and at Tours and Honfleur in France. The 
foreign holiday courses are mainly attended by secondary 
teachers of modern languages, but in a few cases, as in the 
pedagogical courses at Jena, the clientele is almost wholly com- 
posed of members of the faculties of training colleges.^' 

The summer or vacation schools at home, though few in num- 
ber, are very significant. The Scotch summer schools at Edin- 
burgh and St. Andrews have long been famous. The Royal Col- 
lege of Art holds an annual summer school with short art 
courses for teachers. Oxford and Cambridge also hold 
summer schools but they do not cater primarily to the ele- 
mentary school teacher. The Delegacy for the Training of Sec- 
ondary Teachers, Oxford University, offers vacation courses of 
practical work and instruction to masters of secondary schools 
who are prevented by their professional engagements from attend- 
ing, during the winter session, the required courses for the di- 
ploma in education. The usual course lasts four weeks and 
costs £7.50 ($37.50), but it may be reduced to two or extended 
to six weeks. In the latter case it is accepted as equivalent to 
a term's residence. The work done during the session comprises 
two discussion lessons given each morning to a class of boys, 
one or two lectures daily, reading under guidance, and essay 
writing. The following groups of school subjects are dealt with 
— natural science and geography, mathematics and history, Latin 
and French, English literature, grammar and composition.^' 

A few progressive local education authorities provide free 
summer-vacation courses for their teachers or give grants-in-aid 
to enable them to attend other courses both at home and abroad. 

" Board of Education: Table of Holiday Courses, 1909. 
" Prospectus of the Oxford University Delegacy vacation courses 
for the training of teachers, 1909. 



1 1 8 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The Leeds city council and" the county councils of London and 
the West Riding of Yorkshire have done more than other au- 
thorities along these lines. The city of Leeds gives financial 
assistance to its teachers to attend courses in French at Tours, 
Honfleur, Grenoble or Boulogne; in German at Neuvvied and 
Berlin ; in Spanish at Santander ; in English, French and German 
at Edinburgh ; in technical handwork at Scarborough ; and in 
plumbing at King's College, London. The courses for which 
grants in aid are awarded by the county council of the West 
Riding of Yorkshire are as those for Leeds, with the addition 
of theory and practice of education and physical instruction 
courses at Scarborough, and the general course at Oxford held 
under the auspices of the Oxford University Extension Delegacy. 
London County Council awards 60 grants to enable its ele- 
mentary and secondary teachers to attend, during the summer 
vacation, a foreign holiday approved by the council ; also 12 
grants to assist women teachers to attend the holiday course in 
nature study held at Swanley Horticultural College during the 
summer vacation. The amount of the grants for foreign courses 
is £10 ($50) and for home courses £5 ($25). In this connec- 
tion the small teachers' summer meetings for instruction in 
technical subjects, held at Weston-super-Mare by the Somerset- 
shire County Council and at Barry by the Glamorganshire 
County Council, may also be mentioned. ^^ 

But it is chiefly in the provision of facilities for the further 
education of teachers during the winter months that England 
is conspicuous. In London the classes are of two types — ( i ) 
classes intended to improve the teacher's efficiency in regard to 
certain special subjects, such as drawing, science, infant work 
and drill, and (2) university classes which are established with a 
view to bringing teachers into contact with original workers in 
various branches of learning. In the first type of classes, which 
are held in the elementary schools of the council, 5,099 teachers 
were enrolled during the session of 1906-7. In the second type, 
which are held at the various colleges of London University and 



"London County Council: Scholarship's Handbook, 1908-9, 132-134. 
Somerset County Council: Handbook for 1907, p. 23. 
Leeds: Training Courses for Teachers of all Grades, 1906-7. 
West Riding County Council: Handbook, Courses for Teachers, 
Section XI, 1907. 



The Teacher in Service 119 

which include such different subjects as ancient languages and 
literature, history, science, mathematics, and household economics, 
2,615 were enrolled.^^ Courses for supplementary and uncertifi- 
cated teachers are also provided. In Yorkshire, greater atten- 
tion is paid to the provision of classes to meet the urgent needs 
of uncertificated and supplementary teachers who wish to study 
for the certificate examination of the Board of Education.^" In 
other parts of the country, while the classes for teachers are con- 
stantly improving both in quality and quantity, much still re- 
mains to be done. 

Teachers' Associations and other Educational Organisations: 
The general educational organizations of England, which were 
so prominent during the first half of the nineteenth century, 
seem to be a resuscitation of a form of corporate life and pro- 
cedure which flourished from the thirteenth to the sixteenth cen- 
tury. The guilds were the prototype of the later educational 
organizations just as the apprenticeship system of Tudor times 
was the prototype of the monotorial and pupil-teacher system of 
the nineteenth century. The general educational societies of the 
early part of the nineteenth century were chiefly concerned with 
the education of the independent poor ; it was not until the later 
decades of the century that we find definite associations of 
teachers organized on a professional basis. At the present time, 
however, the teachers' organizations are so numerous that no 
division of teachers is without its separate organization. 

A notable feature of the earlier educational organizations was 
their denominational bias. The more notable were the British 
and Foreign School Society 1808, the National Society 181 1, the 
Home and Colonial Society 1836, the Wesleyan Educational 
Committee 1840, the Congregational Board of Education 1843, 
the London Ragged School Union 1844, and the Catholic Poor 
School Committee. The amount of money these societies spent 
to assist local efforts in the establishment and maintenance of 
schools, in the training of teachers, in the provision of school 
books and apparatus at a cheap rate, and in the inspection and 
organization of schools indicates a great devotion to these self- 



'* Organization of Education in London, 1908, p. 13. 
" Leeds: Training Courses for Teachers of all Grades, 1906-7. 
West Riding County Council : Handbook, Courses for Teachers, 
Section XI, 1907. 



1 20 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

imposed tasks. This belief in the efficacy of a religious educa- 
tion led to generous contributions for its support. The above 
mentioned societies from the year of their foundation to the year 
1859 expended a total of no less than £1,399,832 ($6,999,160) 
on behalf of education. ^*^ 

Other educational organizations which played important parts 
during the middle decades of the nineteenth century were the 
College of Preceptors 1846,-^ the National Public School Asso- 
ciation, the Manchester and Salford Committee, the Education 
League,^^ and the TSTorth of England Council for Promoting the 
Higher Education of Women (1867-74). 

The present-day organizations are, for the most part, profes- 
sional organizations recruiting their members exclusively from 
the great body of teachers and administrators. A few still exist 
to protect special interests, religious or otherwise. The teachers' 
associations are very numerous-^ and very influential and it 
would be difficult to find an adult English teacher who was not 
a member of at least one of them. Some associations like the 
National Union of Teachers (64,459 — 29,473 men and 34,986 
women), have a very large membership; others, like the Head- 
masters' Conference (108), have small memberships but the 
influence and usefulness of an association cannot be judged by 
its membership. Some associations, like the Child Study Society 
and section L of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, exist solely for the promotion of the scientific study 
of education ; others, like the Society of Schoolmasters, founded 
in 1798, and the Students' Aid Society, Ltd., are purely benevo- 
lent and philanthropic institutions. 

The activities of modern organizations may be classified under 
the following heads: (i) political or legislative; (2) legal aid, 
advice and protection; (3) economic betterment; (4) educational 
and professional; (5) insurance and benevolent work; (6) 
tenure; (7) information bureau; (8) appointments bureau; (9) 
social; (10) publications department; (11) pensions; and (12) 



'"Newcastle Commission, I, 18. 

*' Calendar of the College of Preceptors, 1909: 21-24. 

"Adams: The Elementary School Contest, pp. 160, 295. 

'^ Comprehensive list of these are given in the London Journal of 
Education for Jan. 1908 and for March, 1910; a similar list is given in 
the N. U. T. Handbook for 1907. 



The Teacher tn Service 121 

registration. The above classification, which must not be re- 
garded as mutually exclusive for in actual practice there is much 
overlapping, will now be treated in some detail. Pensions and 
registration so far as they are concerned with teachers' asso- 
ciations will be dealt with in the chapter following as part of 
the much wider aspects of the same topics. 

(i) Political or Legislative: By this is meant the efforts to 
secure improvements in economic and professional conditions by 
means of legislation. Legislation may be furthered indirectly 
by means of (a) resolutions, passed at conferences and other 
influential gatherings of teachers, sent on to the Board of Edu- 
cation and prominent members of Parliament; (b) deputations 
to the Board or to members of the Cabinet. In 1887 the Uni- 
versity Women Teachers' Association joined with the Head- 
mistresses' Association and elected a deputation to wait upon the 
Board of Education with regard to the absence of women from 
the inspectorate. The mission was successful but not as success- 
ful as the women teachers wished, for on March 4, 1909, a still 
more representative deputation of women waited upon the Presi- 
dent of the Board and urged him, when enlarging his inspec- 
torate staff, to choose women inspectors because they were, in 
many ways, more competent to deal with the perplexing prob- 
lems of elementary education than were men. Perhaps the most 
noted deputations from associations, because most truly repre- 
sentative, are those which have been organized to discuss the 
vexed question of a teachers' register (see Chapter VII). Al- 
though the multitudinous resolutions passed at conferences which 
are forwarded to influential people are usually not so effective 
as deputations, they have been instrumental in determining 
the general lines which legislation has taken. So strongly en- 
trenched are these societies that they naturally are consulted with 
respect to proposed legislation and they have even been asked 
to draft bills, e.g., (a) in 1879 the first secondary education bill 
was drafted by the College of Preceptors; (b) in 1890 the 
Teachers Guild drafted another one; (c) the Association of 
Headmasters' had a bill introduced in 1902, but it took the name 
of the member who introduced it; (d) Colonel Lockwood's bill, 
1899. regarding the registration of teachers was drafted by the 
incorporated Association of Headmasters. The teachers' associa- 



12 2 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

tions have also been active in support of any legislation which 
they could approve. The Education Act of 1902 was supported 
in the main by practically every organization in the country 
although numerous amendments from the individual societies 
were frequently proposed. The stated objects of the various 
associations show how keenly appreciated is the fact that legisla- 
tion is supreme. The National Education Association states 
that one of its objects is — "to promote a system of national 
education which shall be in all its grades efficient, pro- 
gressive, and unsectarian, and shall be under popular control ; 
and also to oppose all legislative proposals having a contrary 
tendency " ; the Incorporated Association of Head Mistresses — 
" to consider all questions affecting the interests of the profession 
of education, and to initiate and watch over, promote or oppose 
general or particular measures in Parliament or elsewhere affect- 
ing such profession or the interests of persons engaged in the 
same, and to promote or procure changes of the law, or of the 
administration of the law relating to such profession or to schools, 
colleges and other educational institutions and matters " ; the 
National Union of Teachers — " to improve the condition of 
education in the country, and to obtain the establishment of a 
national system of education, co-ordinated and complete ; also to 
secure for all public elementary schools adequate financial aid 
from public sources, accompanied by suitable conditions." In a 
more direct manner legislation is furthered by actually placing 
teachers on the various legislative bodies. The National Union 
of Teachers finances candidates for Parliament. At the 
present time the general secretary. Sir James Yoxall, is a 
member and is always consulted upon questions dealing with the 
teaching profession. The Incorporated Association of Head- 
masters is also represented in Parliament. The London teachers 
finance some of the County Council members ; and in the 
provinces many teachers serve as members of local councils. 
Lastly, the representatives of many associations are included in 
the membership of the Consultative Committee. 

(2) Legal Aid, Advice and Protection: In consequence of 
the large number of charges made against teachers, most of them 
without real foundation but of a serious character, many teachers' 
associations have found it necessary to establish legal bureaus 



The Teacher in Service 123 

so that the best legal advice and assistance may be given to 
members. The cases may be generally classified as follows : (a) 
claims for salary and damages for members ; (b) alleged assaults 
by teachers on scholars (corporal punishment) ; (c) assaults by 
parents and others on teachers; (d) cases of illegal dismissal; 
(e) attempted reduction of scales of salaries; (f) libels and de- 
famatory statements. In most cases where the legal adviser of 
a teachers' association takes up the case a verdict for the teacher 
is obtained. The National Union of Teachers spends annually 
about £6,700 ($33,500) in giving free legal assistance to its mem- 
bers. A manual on " The Law Relating to Schools and Teach- 
ers " by T. A. Organ, the official barrister of the N. U. T. was 
published in 1900, but recent radical changes in the Educational 
Law have caused much of its information to become out of date. 
The Association of Assistant Masters publish " Legal Informa- 
tion for Assistant Masters " and have established a Legal De- 
fence Fund (which is separately invested) by setting aside is. 
(24c.) of every subscription. 

(3) Economic Betterment: The present over-supply of 
trained and certificated teachers or, rather, the employment of 
teachers with inadequate qualifications makes it difficult to secure 
sufficient remuneration for qualified teachers. The Scales of 
Salaries proposed by the N. U. T. and Association of Assistant 
Masters, mentioned earlier in the chapter, have not yet found 
general acceptance. The N. U. T. found it necessary to pro- 
claim a strike in 1906 when the West Ham Authority violated 
its contracts with the teachers. Through the vigilance of the 
associations salaries are on the upward grade, although much re- 
mains to be done. 

(4) Educational and Professional : It is along educational 
and professional lines that teachers' associations and other educa- 
tional organizations find the widest outlet for their energies. No 
organization exists without some specific declaration of educa- 
tional principles in its " objects." The Workers' Educational 
Association exists to bring university culture to the doors of the 
workers ; the Parents' Educational Association endeavors to pro- 
vide a common meeting ground for intercourse between parents, 
teachers and all who are interested in education; the National 
Union of Teachers claims that " most of the improvements in 



124 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Acts, Codes, and other Regulations on education are due, in the 
first place, to the Union's suggestions and activities " ; the Teach- 
ers' Guild has a very complete pedagogic library, a large collec- 
tion of school books, a reading room, and the nucleus of an edu- 
cational museum ; the work of the various associations on the 
teaching of the various school subjects, on college entrance exam- 
inations, etc. is, however, too wide and too varied for a detailed 
description to be given. 

Most of the teachers' associations are in favor of better pro- 
fessional training of teachers although none of them provide it 
at first hand. The College of Preceptors, in the year 1873, in- 
stituted a professorship (the first of the kind established in Eng- 
land) of the Science and Art of Education as a special subject 
of instruction ; and since that time regular courses of lectures 
and lessons for teachers have been delivered during each year. 
In 1895, the Council of the College established a Day Training 
College for Secondary Teachers (now discontinued). From 
1872 onwards, the Headmasters' Conference has urged and ad- 
vocated the professional training of teachers and it was largely 
due to the influence of this organization that Cambridge was 
led to appoint R. H. Quick as professor of education in 1879. 
One of the objects of the National Education Association is " to 
obtain facilities for the better training of teachers in unsectarian 
institutions, under public management." The Froebel Society 
interests itself in Froebellian teachers and students, providing an 
agency for teachers and governesses and holding conferences, 
lectures and classes. The National Union of Teachers has been 
largely instrumental in obtaining extensions of facilities for the 
training of teachers and in the restriction of the employment of 
imperfectly qualified teachers. The Training College Associa- 
tion exists for the purpose of furnishing " opportunities for the 
discussion of educational problems, especially those relating to 
the Training of Teachers ; and for the expression of a collective 
opinion thereon." 

(5) Insurance and Benevolent Work: This is an important 
phase of the work of teachers' associations in England. A few 
associations like the Society of Schoolmasters, the Church 
Schoolmasters and Schoolmistresses' Benevolent Institution, the 
Students' Aid Society, and the Schoolmasters' Widows' Fund 



The Teacher in Service 125 

are purely charitable institutions. The benevolent funds of other 
organizations like those of the Assistant Masters' Association 
and the Teachers' Guild partake also of this nature. The Teach- 
ers' Provident Society in connection with the National Union 
of Teachers is essentially an insurance society. This society 
deals with life insurance, sick pay, and pensions. Its annual in- 
come is £120,000 ($600,000) and its membership is upward of 
22,000. Some societies, as for example the Association of Assis- 
tant Masters and the Teachers' Guild, obtain special rates for 
teachers in the general insurance companies. 

(6) Tenure: The necessity for a reasonable security of tenure 
is regarded as fundamental by all teachers' associations. Of all 
classes of teachers, assistant masters in secondary schools were 
most insecure with respect to tenure. Only after most expen- 
sive litigation and untiring efforts did the Assistant Masters' 
Association obtain redress of their grievances by the passing of 
the Endowed Schools (Masters) Act in 1908. The headmis- 
tresses and assistant mistresses seem to have agreed on a com- 
promise. They both favor a probationary period, not exceeding 
a year, before a permanent engagement is entered upon. Part 
of the legal work of teachers' associations as previously stated 
is connected with cases of teachers wrongfully dismissed from 
their posts. 

(7) Information Bureau : Information is disseminated among 
the members of the associations by means of annual reports, 
leaflets and other publications. In a few cases a bureau of in- 
formation is organized by the societies. The bureau of informa- 
tion of the Teachers' Guild collects the latest available informa- 
tion about the following: — various examinations; particulars of 
schools for boys and girls ; colleges for men and women ; musical 
colleges, conservatories, schools of art, studios, etc., in England 
and abroad ; technical and domestic education ; specialized educa- 
tion such as that connected with the Civil Service and banks ; 
facilities for study — all general information about universities, 
laboratories, museums, art collections, libraries, etc., in England 
and abroad ; residence, in London, provinces and abroad, for stu- 
dents and teachers. A useful phase of work undertaken by sev- 
eral of the associations is the preparation of a diary of events 



126 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

or a review of the educational work of the current year. The 
wider pubHc is reached through the medium of the press. 

(8) Appointments Bureau: The work of agency illustrates 
the harmonious spirit of co-operation that exists between the 
various professional organizations. A joint scholastic agency 
for masters in secondary schools is under the direction of the 
following leading educational associations : — Headmasters' Con- 
ference, Incorporated Association of Headmasters, College of 
Preceptors, Teachers' Guild, Incorporated Association of Assis- 
tant Masters, Association of Headmasters of Preparatory 
Schools. Welsh County Schools Association, Association of 
Technical Institutions, and the Association of Teachers in 
Technical Institutes. The agency is not worked with a view 
to profit, but solely to benefit assistant masters. The rates of 
commission are fixed as low as possible and the annual amount 
saved to clients in difference in amount of commissions between 
this and other agencies is estimated at £500 ($2,500). A similar 
agency for assistant mistresses is conducted by a joint committee 
composed of representatives of the following societies : — Teachers' 
Guild, College of Preceptors, Head Mistresses' Association, As- 
sociation of Assistant Mistresses, and the Welsh County Schools 
Association. The rates charged are fixed as low as possible, to 
cover working expenses only. 

(9) Social: The associations by conferences and joint meet- 
ings have done much important yet unobtrusive work in break- 
ing down the barriers which exist between diflferent classes of 
schools and are a serious hindrance to professional unity. The 
joint work of the associations in the framing of the new teachers' 
reg-ister is doing incalculable benefit in welding the whole of the 
members of the teaching profession into a solid phalanx. 

(10) Publications Department: Besides issuing the annual 
reports, etc., many of the associations manage publication de- 
partments of greater or less magnitude. The publications are 
in pamphlet form as a rule although some are more pretentious. 
The Assistant Masters' Association prepared the Statistical Tables 
which are found on pp. 533-561 of Vol. IV of the Report of the 
Royal Commission on Secondary Education. This Association 
also published a " Report of the Joint Committee on the Training 



The Teacher in Service 127 

of Teachers." The Association of Headmasters have pubHshed 
an " Elementary Science Syllabus," an advanced " Syllabus of 
Physics and Chemistry " and a " List of Public Secondary 
Schools in England and Wales." The Classical Association pub- 
lish an annual report on the progress of classical studies. The 
Child Study Society has issued a report based on the examina- 
tion of 100,000 children. The Moral Instruction League has pub- 
lished graduated moral-lesson text-books, and a " Return on 
Moral Instruction in Elementary Schools " and other publica- 
tions. The publication department of the National Union of 
Teachers is especially active. The annual issues of the " Code " 
and the " Companion to the code " are probably the most widely 
circulated educational publications in England, because they pro- 
vide a collection of exact copies of the texts of the official regu- 
lations, which are usually published in pamphlet form. More- 
over, they are well edited and purchase of these by a school 
makes it conform to the official regulation which states that 
" every school must possess a copy of the Elementary School 
Code." The N. U. T. Handbook of Education (last edition 
1907) is most important to administrators; it contains informa- 
tion about school laws, lists of education authorities, detailed 
information about higher secondary, technical and elementary 
education, the training of teachers, school staffing, etc. Most 
of the associations have " official organs " published weekly, 
monthly or quarterly. A few of the more important official 
organs are the "Schoolmaster" (a weekly publication acquired 
by the National Union of Teachers in Jan. 1909) ; the " A. M. 
A." of the Assistant Masters' Association ; the " Educational 
Times " of the College of Preceptors ; the " Teachers' Guild 
Quarterly " ; the " Preparatory Schools Review " of the Associa- 
tion of Preparatory Schools ; " Secondary Education " of the 
Private Schools Association ; " Modern Language Teaching " of 
the Modern Language Association ; the " Parents' Review " of 
the Parents' National Education Union ; the " Educational 
Record " of the British and Foreign School Society ; " Child 
Study " of the Child Study Society ; " Journal of Hellenic 
Studies " of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies ; 
" Educational Handbook " of the Educational Handbook Asso- 



1 28 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

ciation ; " The Highway " of the Workers' Educational Asso- 
ciation ; the " Mathematical Gazette " of the Mathematical Asso- 
ciation ; " Child Life " of the Froebel Society ; and last, but per- 
haps most important of all, the " Training College Record " of the 
Training College Association. The " London Teacher," while 
not an " official organ " is devoted to the interests of the teaching 
profession within the Metropolitan area. Many of these maga- 
zines are extremely valuable, not only to the members of a par- 
ticular association, but also to the members of the teaching pro- 
fession as a whole. 

(11 and 12) Pensions and Teachers' Registration are dealt 
with in the succeeding chapter. 

The National Union of Teachers: Because of the outstand- 
ing importance of this association, separate treatment is here given 
to it. The N. U. T., as it is popularly called, is the largest 
of the teachers' organizations in Great Britain. It was founded 
in 1870 and was in the first instance a union of several associa- 
tions of teachers which had been organized on denominational 
lines ; it is now a union of 498 local associations which cover 
every part of England and Wales. The local associations are 
combined in 56 county associations. The Union is primarily 
an elementary teachers' association though within recent years 
teachers in secondary and higher schools have been admitted. 
No one is excluded on account of creed, party, sex, or class of 
school. The subscription is 12s. ($3) per annum. The work 
of the Union is carried on by an Executive and its seven stand- 
ing committees. The Union claims that the following reforms 
arc due to the initiative and persistent advocacy of the Union; 
and its claims have undoubtedly a substantial basis : 

" Education Acts and Amendments to Education Acts and 
Factory Acts. 

Appointment of Royal Commissions and Select Committees to 
consider questions of education. 

The extension and liberalisation of curricula. 

The abolition of rigid and unnatural classifications of scholars 
by mere age, and the establishment of flexible, natural, and edu- 
cational classifications by attainments and capacities. 

Improvements in the regulations concerning instruction in 
singing, drawing, manual training, domestic subjects, and needle- 
work. 



The Teacher in Service 1 2 9 

The reduction of over-pressure on younger scholars. 

The establishment of healthier and more reasonable conditions 
of study in school. 

The adoption of satisfactory schemes of medical insi)ection. 

Improvements in the enforcement of school attendance. 

Extensions in the school life of children. 

Reductions of the ' Half Time ' system. 

Improvements in methods of inspection and examination. 

The abolition of universal annual examinations of schools. 

The abolition of the examination of each scholar. 

A more educational graduation in various branches of the 
curriculum. 

The raising of the standards of proficiency required for exemp- 
tion of children from attendance at school. 

The abolition of the principle of payment according to mechani- 
cal results. 

Reduction in the size of classes. 

Amendments in the organization and selection of the Inspec- 
torate. 

Amelioration in the curriculum and training of pupil-teachers. 

Improvement in the qualifications of teachers. 

Restriction of the employment of imperfectly qualified teachers. 

Improvements in the curriculum and training of King's 
scholars. 

Extension of facilities for the training of teachers. 

The raising of the standard of proficiency required from can- 
didates for the teacher's certificate. (In connection with the 
training of teachers the executive has called into conference 
the highest expert authorities.) 

Abolition of an inept teachers' register, and legal establishment 
of powers for the profession to create a proper teachers' register. 

The new modelling of codes of regulations for day and even- 
ing schools. 

Alterations in rules mistakenly laid down by school boards, 
local education committees, and other bodies of school managers. 

The election or appointment of experts in teaching on local 
legislation and governing bodies for education." 

The N. U. T. also conducts an Examination Board. This 
Board was established in 1895, ^"*^^ since that time has examined 
110,000 candidates in various examinations. The principal ex- 
aminations of the N. U. T. are for teachers' diplomas in wood- 
work, metal work, needlework, dressmaking and music ; and for 
diplomas in various commercial and handicraft subjects. The 



130 Traifiitig of Teachers in England and Wales 

other activities of the Union along lines of provident work, 
standardization of salaries, legal work, publications, etc. were 
mentioned earlier in the chapter. The importance of this asso- 
ciation in the educational life of England can hardly be over- 
estimated.'* 



-■* The infomiation about Teachers' Associations and other Educa- 
tional Organizations has been largely culled from prospectuses, official 
organs and annual reports of the various institutions concerned. In 
addition, the following have been found valuable: 

Balfour. Graham: Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Schoolmasters Year Book and Directory, 1909. 

Public Schools Year Book, 1909. 

Girls' School Year Book. 1909. 

School Government Chronicle Handbooks, especially IV and VI. 

School Governmoit Chronicle: files of; especially numbers from 
1900 onwards. 

Journal of Education: files of; especiall}- number for Jan., 190S. 

Schoolmaster: files of. 

School World : files of . 

N. U. T. publications. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE TEACHER AS A CIVIL SERVANT 

In treating of the history of training teachers (Chapter II) 
it was pointed out that in the interval between the Minutes of 
1846 and the Revised Code of 1862, the teacher was, in a very 
real sense, a servant of the state. Not only did he receive a 
pension when old age or sickness incapacitated him, but he also 
received that part of his salary due to him for training the pupil- 
teachers under his charge direct from the central office in Lon- 
don. The Revised Code served this close connection, although 
salaries, in part, continued to be paid from the central office in 
the form of grants. But it is only since the resuscitation of the 
pension scheme^ and the inauguration of a teachers' register^ 
(temporarily discontinued) that the earlier significance of the 
phrase " the teacher as a civil servant " has been restored. 

Pensions for Teachers: The main features of the English pen- 
sion scheme for elementary teachers are its automatic operation, 
its compulsory character, and its joint financial support by gov- 
ernment grants and assessments from the teachers. 

The scheme came into operation after the passing of the Super- 
annuation Act in 1898. The provisions are of three kinds — the 
Annuity, the Superannuation Allowance, and the Disablement 
Allowance. The scheme is limited to certificated teachers. Ser- 
vice in .schools which counts towards the pension is known as 
recorded service. No teacher can record service after reaching 
sixty-five years of age — the age when the certificate automati- 
cally lapses — unless special permission to continue is granted by 
the Board. Recorded service is thus limited as to the time it 
may continue and as to the kinds of teachers who may serve in 
it. Although the Act was named the Superannuation Act for 
elementary teachers, other classes of teachers such as certificated 
teachers employed on the staffs of training colleges, pupil- 

1 Elementary School Teachers' (Superannuation) Act, 1898; 61 and 
62, Vict. c. 57. 

' Board of Education Act, 1899. 131 



132 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

teacher centres, central classes for pupil-teachers, or preparatory 
classes for pupil-teachers, or as organizing teachers, were not 
expressly debarred participation in the benefits of the scheme. 
However, in Circular 563, issued in 1907, the Board states that 
the operation of the act will be rigidly confined " to (certifi- 
cated) teachers in elementary schools, in certified schools for 
blind, deaf, defective or epileptic children, and in certified re- 
formatory and industrial schools." In all cases a certificated 
teacher, not serving in a school of the above type and who is 
already having his service recorded, will continue to be recog- 
nized as a prospective pensioner provided that the institution 
in which he is engaged continues to be recognized by the Board 
and subject to its inspection. This procedure has met with much 
opposition from certain quarters, but the action of the Board 
is justified in some respects inasmuch it was clearly not the in- 
tention of Parliament in 1898 to establish a system of state-aided 
pensions for the teaching staffs of secondary schools. 

The Annuity: The annuity becomes payable to the teacher 
on attainment of the age of sixty-five years, whether he (or she) 
be then teaching or not. The amount of annuity is dependent 
upon the number of annual contributions to the " deferred 
annuity fund," no matter how few or broken these contributions 
may have been. The amount of contribution is dependent upon 
the average salary of the teachers and is increased by five shil- 
dings for men and four shillings for women for each ten per 
cent increase of average wage. To the original contributions of 
£3 ($15) for men and £2 ($10) for women, one increase of five 
shillings for the men and two increases of four shillings for the 
women have been made. The present annual contributions, 
therefore, are i3-5s-od for men and i2-8s-od for women. These 
sums are not paid directly by the teacher; they are deducted 
from the Parliamentary grants to the local education authority 
by whom the teacher is employed. The teacher is given a re- 
ceipt and is credited with the amount paid in this indirect fashion. 
Since the local authority receives from the government a grant 
which is less than is earned by the sum total of all the contribu- 
tions of its teachers to the deferred annuity fund, the tendency 
will be to reduce salaries to obtain compensation for the loss. 
This has been done, but only to a surprisingly small extent. 



The Teacher as a Civil Servant 133 

This then is the contributory portion of the scheme. The 
amount of annuity is fixed by annuity tables issued by the treas- 
ury as occasion demands. In no case can the money be drawn 
before the age of sixty-five is reached or obtained in a kimp sum 
by the teacher or his relations. Only the interest from the de- 
ferred annuity fund is used to pay the annuities. If for any 
reason the interest becomes insufficient to meet the demands for 
pensions, new annuity tables will be drawn up. The annuity 
tables in use at present are given in api)endix D.-' 

The Superannuation Allozvancc: The superannuation allow- 
ance is the contribution made by the state towards the total pen- 
sion granted to teachers. It is paid, however, only to those teach- 
ers who contribute to the deferred annuity fund. Such con- 
tributions must have been paid for at least half the number of 
years the teacher has been certificated, or the allowance is for- 
feited. The rate of payment is ten shillings $2.50) for each 
complete year of recorded service. Thus, if a man has con- 
tributed to the deferred annuity fund from twenty to sixty-five 
years of age he is entitled to an annual superannuation allowance 
of i22-ios-od $112.50). The sum added to the annuity for 
which he has made his contributions amounts to a total pension 
of £6i-i8s-8d ($309.60). This is the greatest possible pension 
for a man. For a woman the greatest pension is £42-5 s-8d 
($211.36). For the teacher who rendered service prior to 1899, 
i.e., before it could be recorded, an augmented rate of allowance 
is provided. The annuity, however, remains dependent upon his 
contributions — the fewer the contributions, the lower the annuity. 
Both the superannuation allowance and the annuity are liable 
to forfeiture, suspension, or reduction in cases of misconduct. 

The Disablement Allowance: The disablement is also con- 
tributed by the state and is given to teachers who, having served 
not less than ten years of recorded service, and not less than half 
the years which have elapsed since they became certificated, be- 
come so infirm in mind or body as to be incapable of following 
their ordinary vocations. The amount of disablement allowance 
is according to the following scale : 

(a) " If the teacher is a man, twenty pounds ($100) for ten 
complete years of recorded service, with the addition of one 

^ From elementary teachers' Superannuation Act, rules, annuity tables 
and memorandum, pp. 22-23. 



134 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

pound ($5) for each complete additional year of recorded serv- 
ice; and 

(b) If the teacher is a woman fifteen pounds ($75) for ten 
complete years of recorded service, with the addition of thirteen 
shillings ($3.25) for each complete additional year of recorded 
service."* 

Thus a man who serves thirty years before he breaks down 
receives an annual disablement allowance of £40 ($200). Under 
no circumstances, however, can the disablement allowance ex- 
ceed the total annual sum which the teacher might obtain from 
an annuity and superannuation allowance under the Act, by con- 
tinuing to serve until the age of sixty-five years. ^ There is a 
triennial reconsideration of all disablement allowances by the 
treasury, when the teacher must produce the medical evidence 
to show that he is still qualified to retain it. 

On March 31st, 1908, there were 370 men and 1,071 women 
receiving disablement allowances at an annual cost to the im- 
perial exchequer of £40,125 ($200,625). The proportions for 
men and women were £13,241 and £26,884 respectively. The 
total number of annuities and superannuation allowances in 
force on the same date were 831 for men and 598 for women. 
The annual cost of these were £30,763 ($153,815) and £16,628 
($83,140) for men and women respectively, or a grand total of 
£47,391 ($236,955). About twenty-nine thirtieths of this amount 
was provided by exchequer grants. The total cost during the 
year was £87,416 for 2,870 pensions, an average amount of 
£30-ios-od ($152.50) per pension." 

There is at present no state aided or state controlled pension sys- 
tem for English secondary school teachers. For Welsh teachers, 
the Central Welsh Board has established a scheme of retiring 
allowances which applies to the whole of Wales and to all teach- 
ers in schools established under the Welsh Intermediate Education 
Act of 1889. In several large English secondary schools fairly 
adequate schemes are in force but these are strictly limited to 
the particular schools in question. For the smaller schools such 
an arrangement is obviously impossible. In 1904 at a joint con- 
ference of representatives of the Incorporated Association of 



* Superannuation Act, 1898, and explanatory memorandum, p. 27. 

' 61 and 62, Vict. c. 57, section 2 (IX c.) 

'Statistics of Public Education, 1906-7-8; Table 119. 



The Teacher as a Civil Servant 135 

Headmasters and the Incorporated Association of Assistant 
Masters, a small sub-committee was appointed to deal with the 
whole question of pensions and retiring allowances. Realizing 
that a national system was a very remote possibility, the com- 
mittee recommended that education authorities should be urged 
to establish schemes for themselves. Three possible schemes 
were outlined. In all of the schemes the contributions were to 
be jointly met by the assistant master and his employers and 
were to be paid over to an insurance company which then dealt 
with them in the ordinary way of business. Few authorities 
have as yet acted on the suggestions of the sub-committee, the 
probable feeling being that assistant secondary school teachers 
are becoming more and more the servants of the state and there- 
fore should be included in a national scheme as were the ele- 
mentary school teachers in 1898.'^ 

The Teachers' Register: The teachers' register is at present 
the cause of a serious controversy between the central authority 
and the various teachers' associations in England. The forma- 
tion of a teachers' register in alphabetical order was one of the 
duties assigned to the consultative committee as established by 
the Board of Education Act of 1899. Unfortunately, the register 
as drawn up was in alphabetical order, but in two columns — A 
and B — one for elementary, the other for secondary school 
teachers. 

This division of teachers into two classes has met with great 
opposition from the elementary teachers. Further, the register 
was not fulfilling the main object for which it was established, 
namely, the encouragement of secondary teachers to undergo a 
course of formal training for their profession. According to the 
Teachers' Registration Council report for 1905 less than 20 men 
and less than 400 women had undergone a course of training 
since the foundation of the register in 1902^ Accordingly the 
obligation to frame, form or keep a Teachers' Register was dis- 
continued by the Education Act (Administrative Provisions) of 
1907, " provided that it shall be lawful for His Alajesty by Order 
in Council to constitute a registration council representative of 
the teaching profession, to whom shall be assigned the duty 
of forming and keeping a register of such teachers as satisfy the 

' I. A. H. M. Reports 1904 and 1905. 

' Scheme for a New Teachers' Registration Council, 1908. 



136 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

conditions of registration established by the council for the time 
being, and who shall apply to be registered."^ 

The abolition of the register was considered a grave injustice, 
amounting to a breach of faith, to all those teachers who had 
registered, and the public confidence in the stability of the policy 
of the Board was certainly severely shaken. It was pointed out 
by many teachers' associations that the register had tended to 
promote the solidarity of the teaching profession, had raised the 
standard of qualifications of teachers in all kinds of secondary 
schools, and had given a prestige to the teachers' calling which 
had been most helpful in securing a good quality of teacher. The 
register had provided a state guarantee of efficiency ; its aboli- 
tion left secondary teachers the only professional men and women 
for whose competency no public authority vouched. Further, it 
was contended that it had encouraged the training of secondary 
teachers although the period of trial was too short to give very 
definite results. 

The teachers' associations, after a series of conferences, unani- 
mously adopted a scheme for a New Registration Council. The 
registration was to be wholly controlled by the Council. A depu- 
tation waited upon Sir Robert Morant, the secretary of the 
Board, with the object of furthering their plan, but the scheme, 
although fairly representative in character, was refused sanction 
because such important sections of the teaching profession as 
teachers in kindergartens, women teachers of technical subjects, 
teachers of physical training, domestic subjects, and so forth, 
were given no representation. 

The next step was to summon a more representative confer- 
ence of associations. Accordingly, a conference was summoned 
by the Federal Council for November 13th, 1909. It was at- 
tended by representatives of all the thirty-seven associations of 
teachers which were essentially " general in scope and not merely 
local in character." Representatives of associations of teachers 
of special subjects were not invited for it was contended that 
they were sufficiently represented by the other associations. The 
conference discussed and then voted upon a series of resolutions, 
the outcome of which was the framing of a new registration 
council. The principle of membership of the council is repre- 



' Education (Administrative Provisions) Act, 1907, ss. 16, 17 and 18. 



The Teacher as a Civil Servant 



137 



sentation by groups of associations. The suggested scheme which 
was ahnost unanimously adopted is as follows: 



SUGGESTED SCHEME 

Number of Representatives for the First Registration Council 

Elementary School Branch 



1. National Union of Teachers 

2. National Association of Head Teachers .... 

3. National Federation of Assistant Teachers. . 

4. National Association of Teachers of the Deaf 



Representatives 

(64,459)^° si^ 

(5,030) one 

(18,755) t'i^o 
(325) 



(U 

6 14 

615 

17 
18 



Secondary School Branch 

Head Masters' Conference 

Head Masters' Association 

Head Mistresses' Association 

Assistant Mistresses' Association 

Assistant Masters' Association 

Association of Preparatory Schools. 



(108) 

(519) 
(286) 

(940) 

(2,680) 

(436) 

Private Schools' Association (about 500) 

College of Preceptors ' (about 1,000) 

Teachers' Guild (about 3,300) 



one 
one 
one 
one 
one 
one 
one 
one 
one 



Technological Branch 

(Technical Schools, Schools of Art, etc.) 

Association of Technical Institutions {^3,Z) orie 

Association of Teachers in Technical Insti- 

tions (about 800) one 

National Society of Art Masters (324) 

Art Teachers' Guild (216) 

Royal Drawing Society (Incorporated) (708) J 

' Royal Academy of Music 

Royal College of Music 

Union of Graduates in Music, Incorporated 
Union of Directors of Music in Secondary 

Schools 

Incorporated Society of Musicians 

Guildhall School of Music 

Royal College of Organists 

f National Shorthand Association (Incorpo- 

'1 rated), Teachers Section (about 1,000) 

■ Society of Certificated Teachers of Shorthand (200) 

Association of Book-keeping Teachers (193) 

Incorporated Society of Commercial Teachers (80) 



Association af Teachers of Domestic Science 



(1,150) one 



f National Association of Manual Training(about 1,000) 

Teachers 

Educational Handwork Association (nearly 1,200) J 



'" Numbers in brackets refer to membership. 



138 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

^ §20. r Incorporated Gymnastic Teachers' Institute (175) 

o':p2i. J British College of Physical Education (280) 

^3 22. I Ling Association (185) 

-cj^23. I. National Society of Physical Education. . . . (204) 

24. r Union of Teachers of the Deaf on the Pure 

Oral System (iJ'3) 

25. j College of Teachers of the Blind (88) 

26. I Smith Training College of the Royal College (Number 
[ for the Blind not stated) 

Associations not Included in A. i (a), (b), (c), etc. 

Representatives 
(1)1. Froebel Society (2,600) one 

2. / Training College Association (369) \ one 

3. \ Teachers' Training Association (73) / 

4. Welsh County Schools Association (96) one 

5. Conference of Catholic Colleges (39) 

(2) A certain number co-opted by the Registration Council. 

(3) A certain number nominated by the Crown. 

It is suggested that the ultimate constitution of the Registra- 
tion Council would depend upon the character which the Register 
finally assumes.^^ Each member of the council is to hold office 
for three years ; one-third retiring at the end of each year. The 
register is to satisfy the statutory requirements contained in the 
Education Act of 1907, namely, " the register shall contain the 
names and addresses of all registered teachers in alphabetical 
order in one column, together with the date of their registration, 
and such further statements as regards their attainments, train- 
ing, and experience as the council may from time to time deter- 
mine that it is desirable to set forth." The scheme does not in- 
clude Scotland or Ireland. The moneys paid for registration on 
the old register are to be transferred to the new registration 
council. The fee for registration is to be uniform for all and 
is not to exceed a guinea ($5.25). This revised scheme is now 
awaiting the legalization of an Order in Council, but since there 
is complete agreement upon the fundamental propositions of the 
measure among the teachers' associations it is difficult to see 
how such sanction can be withheld. The whole of the proceed- 
ings of the past two years have shown in unmistakable fashion 
the professional solidarity of the teachers of England and Wales. 

" Registration of Teachers: Report of a Conference, Nov. 13th, 1909, 
pp. 38 and 39. 



CHAPTER VIII 

STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION AND COMPARI- 
SON; SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

A. Statistical Interpretation and Comparison 

England and Wales had in 1908 a population of 35,348,780.^ 
The number of elementary scholars was 6,016,362 distributed with 
respect to age as follows :^ 

Ages Number of Scholars 

3 — 5 432,048 

5 — 7 1,294,661 

7—12 3,207,793 

12 — 15 1,074,168 

Over 15 7,692 



The large number of children between three and five years of 
age is a noticeable feature. The Board of Education, acting on 
the advice of the Consultative Committee, has taken steps to 
reduce this number. The accommodation provided, as shown 
below, was in excess of the number of children in attendance.^ 

Type of School Number Accommodation 

Council Schools 7,408 3,766,824 

Voluntary Schools 13,213 3. 321. 170 

Total 20,621 7,087,994 



The council schools have all been created since the Elementary 
Education Act of 1870. They are increasing in number at a 

>C. R. 1909;!, 363- 

' Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8. Table 3. 

3 Ibid. Table i. 139 



140 Training of TeacJiers in England and Wales 

much greater rate than the voluntary schools. The average 
number of scholars on the register during the school year was 
5,988,474; the average attendance 5,292,150. The teaching force 
for elementary schools numbered 177,628. This gives 29.8 
scholars in average attendance per teacher, or in terms of the 
average number of scholars on the registers during the school year 
— ZZ-7 P^r teacher. This compares very favorably indeed with 
the number of scholars per teacher in the Prussian elementary 
schools (59.2)* and is almost as low as the number per teacher 
in American elementary schools (32.5).^ The unsatisfactory 
state of afifairs in Prussia is due to the school regulations which 
permit a teacher in an ungraded school to have eighty children 
under his charge. If this number is exceeded, or if the school 
is not large enough, the pupils may be divided into two sections, 
each attending one half day. When the number of pupils ex- 
ceeds a hundred, the decree recommends the employment of a 
second teacher. As late as 1908 a teacher had sole charge of 
200 children." The 32.5 scholars per teacher for America is the 
number in average attendance for the cities and villages which 
reported. For the whole country the figure might be slightly 
lower. 

The types and sex of the adult elementary school teachers are 
indicated below : 

Type of Teachers Men Women 

Certificated teachers 31^205 59.923 

Uncertificated teachers 5-320 38,946 

Supplementary teachers 195 18,437 

Provisional Assistant teachers 351 1.530 

Total 37.071 1 18,836 



Of the total teaching force 23.7% are men. As in all other 
civilized countries, the tendency in England and Wales is to re- 
place men by women teachers. The percentage of men teachers 
who are certificated is 84.4; of the women teachers 50.4 per 



" Stati tis;hes Jahrbuch fiir den Preussischen Staat, 1908. 

' C. R. 1908, II, 409-4T0. 

° Bericht tiber die Deutsche Lehrer-versammlung, Dortmund, 1908. 



Statistical Interpretation and Comparison 141 

cent are certificated. Only 48,776 or 53.5 per cent of the 91,128 
certificated elementary teachers are trained, i.e., have satisfactorily 
completed a training college course. The remainder became 
certificated merely by examination."^ 

The force of trained certificated teachers is produced by the 
79 training colleges in England and Wales. The numbers of 
men and women students in residence in 1908 were 3,245 and 
7,270 respectively — a total of 10,515. The number who gradu- 
ated (that is, completed satisfactorily the course of training) 
was 4,439 of whom 1,295 were men and 3,144 were women. In 
order to have every teacher trained and certificated the average 
period of active service of these 4,439 graduates would have to 
be at least forty years. The present period of active service is 
less than half this number of years, consequently, more than 
twice the number of training college graduates are annually re- 
quired before this ideal standard can be reached. 

The decline of the pupil-teacher system is only faintly indi- 
cated in the latest available statistics (1907-8) of the Board of 
Education, For the years ending in 1906, 1907, and 1908 re- 
spectively, the numbers of pupil-teachers in England and Wales 
were 25,557; 26,745; and 22,403. The large number in 1906-7 
is partly due to the overlapping of a number of three year pupil- 
teachers from 1904. Later statistics will show an acceleration 
in the rate of decrease of the pupil-teacher. The bursar is, of 
course, taking his place. ^ 

The secondary schools have not been under the jurisdiction of 
the Board long enough for the secondary system to become 
national either in scope or character. In England alone, there 
were in 1907-8 only 736 secondary schools on the grant list. The 
number of scholars in attendance was 124,463 — 68,104 boys and 
56,359 girls — for the which 7,581 teachers were provided. This 
gives an average of 16.42 scholars per teacher. England suffers 
severely from excessive elimination of pupils from her second- 
ary schools in spite of the fact that 27 per cent of the total num- 
ber of pupils came from public elementary schools and enjoyed 
free tuition. The distribution of secondary scholars according 
to age is given below: 



' Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8. Tables 5 and 8. 
8 Ibid. Table 60. 



142 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

Age Number 

Under 9 5,139 

9—10 3.849 

10— II 6,159 

11 — 12 11.758 

12 — 13 19.978 

13—14 24,113 

14—15 23,094 

15 — 16 17.947 

16—17 8.487 

17—18 2,755 

18—19 833 

19 and over 351 



Total 124,463 



The mode for the average length of school life after reaching the 
age of twelve years was 2.5 to 3 years. This means that more 
scholars left when between 15.5 and 16.0 years of age than at 
any other age. 

For secondary schools on the grant lists and pupil-teacher cen- 
tres, the following qualifications were held by the teachers on the 
staffs :° 

Graduates holding diplomas 

Graduates not holding diplomas 

Non-graduates holding diplomas 

Non-graduates not holding diplomas. . 

Total 

,When the government scheme for the training of secondary 
teachers has been in operation a few more years, and when the 
teachers' register is once more effective, the professional qualifi- 
cations of secondary teachers will undoubtedly give a nuich better 
showing than is now the case. 

The financing of public education in England is the joint 
undertaking of the central and local authorities. The central 
authority receives and distributes the various Parliamentary 
grants. These grants are made from the Consolidated Fund 
created by William Pitt in the year 1787.^° Into this fund, 

" Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8. Tables 45 and 58. 
•"27 Geo. III. c. 13. 



Men 


Women 


927 


898 


1,625 


676 


635 


1. 188 


1. 1 50 


1,404 


4,337 


4,166 



Statistical Interpretation and Comparison 143 

which is deposited in the Bank of England and the Bank of Ire- 
land, are paid all moneys collected by the revenue officers of 
the United Kingdom. The fund is used by the government in 
very much the same way that a private banking account is used 
by an individual. The amount to be drawn from the Consoli- 
dated Fund for the purposes of education is determined by Parlia- 
ment at the time of the presentation of the budget. In 1907-8 
the Board of Education received by Parliamentary vote the sum 
of £13,276,859 ( $66,384,295 ).i^ 

This sum was expended as follows :^^ 
Administration, Inspection and Ex- P^'/nrf^ Dollars 

amination 423,222 2,116,110 

Public Elementary Schools 11,028,133 55,140,665 

Allowances and Pensions 101,520 507,600 

Training of Teachers 428,851 2,144,255 

Secondary Schools 679,612 3,398,060 

Technical Institutions and Schools 

of Art 456,573 2,282,865 

Scholarships, Museums, etc 158,900 794,500 

Total 13,276,81 1 66,384,055 



The following table (VIII) gives in summarized fashion the 
financial history of the elementary school since 1873 : 



TABLE VIII 

iNCOMii FOR Various Years of Public Elementary Day and Evening 
Schools Inspected for Annual Grants" 



Sources of Income 


1873 


1879 


1884 


1900 


1908 


(a) Government Grants. . . . 

(b) Rates 

(c) Vobmtary Subscriptions 


£772,072 

61 , 209 

539,502 

73.405 

688,296 

31.562 

2 , 166,046 

2 , 206, 640 

1.528,453 


£1,828,703 

636,792 

754, 134 

136,079 

1,372,365 

48,841 

4,776,914 

4,773.825 

2,647,525 


£2,515,776 

915.474 

734. 128 

157.124 

1,734,115 

64, 922 

6,121, 539 

6,131,887 

3.297.558 


£8,002,981 

2.957,717 

812 , 104 

156,012 

262, 135 

144,037 

12,336,086 

12,453,006 

4,872,465 


£11,380,781 
9,491.702 




21,133 

62 ,025 

206, 704 

21,162,353 

21,162,353 

5,292, 150 


(e) Fees and Books 


(r) Total Income 


(h) Total Expenditure 

(i) Average Attendance . . . 



"The education grant for 1910-11 is ;^i4,o64,677 ($70,323,385). 

^^ Statistics of Public Education, 1907-8. Table 117. 

" The table has been compiled from an answer given by the President 
of the Board of Education to a question put by Mr. Spicer, June 14, 
1906, together with the material available in Table 130 of the 1907-8 
tatistics. 



144 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

The table shows in striking fashion the increasing financial 
burden which is thrust upon the local community. Since the 
Education Act of 1902, the local education rates have increased 
by leaps and bounds. This administrative difiiculty has been the 
subject of many memorials and deputations within the past few 
years but as yet no relief has been granted by Parliament. Since 
1873 the total cost of education has increased about ten-fold; 
that portion of the cost contributed by rates has increased to 
one hundred and fifty-six times its original size. 

In America there are sixteen and one-half millions of children 
of school age (7-18) with approximately 500,000 teachers to 
teach them. In 1903-4 the following institutions ofifered more or 
less complete courses of training for teachers: — 180 state normal 
schools, 50 city training schools, 100 private institutions of nor- 
mal school type, 230 colleges and universities, 449 private high 
schools and 273 public high schools. The training given is ob- 
viously extremely variable both with regard to its extent and its 
quality. These provisions have sufficed to train from 15-20% 
of the teaching force. The other 80-85% were prepared by pri- 
vate study and tested wholly by examination and experience. 
There are almost as many standards in these things as there are 
separate examinations. In the New England states a body of 
laymen constituting the school committee, often decide as to the 
qualifications of those whom they wish to employ ; in the middle 
west certification by county examination is frequently met with; 
in a few of the states a state-wide certificate is granted for suc- 
cess in an examination ; a few large cities super-impose examina- 
tions of their own before certificates to teach are granted. The 
certificates are usually for a limited period only ; a certificate for 
life is somewhat rare and is usually difficult to obtain. There 
are usually three or four grades of certificates and the highest 
has a longer period of validity than the others. The lack 
of uniformity, the low standards of certification, and the ab- 
sence of inter-state recognition are probably the most serious 
defect of the certification of teachers in America.^* 

When the English and American systems of training teachers 
are compared, one of the first differences noted is that of the 
degree of centralization in the two countries. The government 

"Cubberley: Certification of Teachers; in 5th year book of National 
Society for the Scientific Study of Education. 



Statistical Interpretation and Comparison 145 

in England has firm control over the training and certification 
of elementary teachers and is rapidly assuming responsibility for 
the training of teachers other than elementary; in America the 
national government has practically nothing to do with teacher 
training or certification and in no single state of the Union is 
there the degree of central control that obtains in England. Only 
Massachusetts approximates the centralization of England. This 
central control in England is sufficiently powerful to maintain a 
high standard for certification, yet it is elastic enough to permit 
of the greatest possible freedom both with respect to the cur- 
riculum and the methods of teaching in the training colleges. 

The best American normal schools are far superior to the 
English ones ; the worst are far inferior to anything that England 
permits. The private normal of America, while filling a great 
gap in the inadequate provision for the professional training 
of teachers, is open to much abuse. But the university educa- 
tion departments of America are undoubtedly the best in the 
world. Nowhere is there such pioneer work in scientific education 
being performed ; nowhere is the greater freedom in experimenta- 
tion allowed. England is only just awakening to the fact that a 
science as well as an art of education is possible — a science as 
true to its canons and principles as are the natural sciences 
themselves. 

The absence of central control in America makes possible 
great laxity, and even abuses, in the certification of teachers. 
The fear of abuse and the absence of standards are probably at 
the basis of the complex system of certification and the compara- 
tive lack of inter-state recognition of certificates. In course of 
time there will probably be a central authority which will stan- 
dardize the certificates for the whole of the United States. Eng- 
lish certificates are valid for life or rather until the pensioning 
age of sixty-five is reached. They are not so uneven in value 
as American certificates. 

The curriculum and methods of teaching are more scientific 
in America than in England. Especially is this true along pro- 
fessional lines. There is in English training colleges a lamentable 
absence of good courses in educational psychology and in the 
history of education. Yet England, ever susceptible to new cur- 
rents of thought, will probably be profoundly influenced by 



146 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

the new educational scientific education of Germany and 
America. Aforetime Herbartianism, chiefly through the work 
of Professor Rein at the University Training Department, Jena, 
had great influence upon EngHsh teacher training. The influence 
of America has also been very strong. Of this there have been 
three stages, viz., (i) the influence of the work of Horace Mann 
in Massachusetts; (2) the influence of Dr. Sheldon, head of the 
Training College, Oswego, N. Y. ; and (3) the influence of the 
great schools of education which have developed within recent 
years, especially those of Chicago under John Dewey, of Clark 
under G. Stanley Hall, and of Teachers College of Columbia 
University under no one outstanding leader. The increasing 
use of the superior American text books of education in the 
English training colleges is most hopeful from the standpoint 
of material ; a more moderate use of the lecture and the intro- 
duction of the spirit of ' give and take ' between teacher and 
taught as found in the best of the American recitations would 
be most significant from the standpoint of method. 

American normal schools could learn much from the English 
training colleges with regard to a healthy development of college 
athletics. The influence of the social life of the English common 
room is a factor in the training of the English teachers which 
is difficult to evaluate correctly but which must afifect most pro- 
foundly the students who come within its sphere. 

America is fortunate in having no religious difficulty in her 
schools. The cultivation of the religious side of the life of a 
people is of supreme importance, although the unbiassed observer 
must realize that individuals are so fundamentally divided upon 
questions of religious belief, that it is almost impossible for 
the state to undertake to teach religion in the schools. The 
logical solution is the complete secularization of the school, but 
this must be coupled with a strengthening of the work of the 
churches in all fields. English training colleges are fast break- 
ing away from denominational control — a separation which has 
been accelerated by the rapid growth of the undenominational 
day training colleges. 

In the matter of state provision for the training of teachers 
other than elementary, England is far ahead of the States. The 
recent introduction of a state controlled and state subsidized 



Summary and Conclusion 147 

system of training secondary teachers marks a new era in the 
training of teachers in England. England and Wales have a 
national system of pensions for elementary teachers. It is at 
present limited to elementary teachers, but will probably be ex- 
tended ultimately to all teachers. America is only just beginning 
to consider this great question of insurance for old age and 
disability. 

B. Summary and Conclusion 

(i) The great degree of real freedom enjoyed by the students 
and teaching staff of the training colleges is one of the chief 
characteristics of the training of teachers in England. With re- 
spect to the curriculum the Board of Education simply fixes the 
lower limit and offers suggestions for courses, but the faculties 
of the training colleges are perfectly free to reject the govern- 
ment schemes in favor of schemes of their own. As to method, 
the government offers but little advice and imposes no restriction 
whatsoever. The unpedagogical lecture method ought to give 
way to real teaching in which there is proper interaction and 
interchange of ideas between teacher and taught. 

(2) The prolongation of the period of secondary school train- 
ing to the age of seventeen years by the institution of the bursary 
system is a step in the right direction, for it ensures a more 
thorough academic preparation of the teachers for elementary 
schools. The possibility of a subsequent year as student-teacher 
is excellent from the point of view of practical experience. The 
extension of the period of practice teaching from six weeks to 
three months for all teachers without practical experience pre- 
vious to entrance into college insures that all trained teachers 
will have some acquaintance with schoolroom procedure and dis- 
cipline before entering on their life's work. The bursar and stu- 
dent-teacher method of giving the preliminary training to teach- 
ers would seem to be a compromise between the American and 
the older English pupil-teacher system of training. 

(3) The apprenticeship system of training, which was carried 
to an extreme in the pupil-teacher system, seems to be giving 
way to a more scientific laboratory method, although suitable 
laboratories in the shape of efficient practising schools are seldom 
provided. This unsatisfactory state of affairs the government 



148 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

has decided to remedy. No new training college will be recog- 
nized unless provision is made for practice teaching in schools 
under the immediate control of the college, and all existing train- 
ing colleges are recommended to provide themselves with demon- 
stration schools so soon as is convenient. 

(4) The loop-holes of escape from training, or rather the easy 
access to the schools without training, is one of the most serious 
defects of English education. To allow upwards of 18,000 
women, whose only qualifications are that they have been suc- 
cessfully vaccinated and have attained the age of eighteen years, 
to enter the schools as supplementary teachers shows a wide- 
spread acceptance of a qualification which is altogether too low.^ 
This number, in view of the recent restrictive regulations of the 
Board will undoubtedly decrease rapidly until in 1914 
they will only be found in infant schools and in the lowest grade 
of rural elementary schools. Tendencies of a similar nature are 
seen in the fact that certification without college training is 
granted for success in a government examination and in the 
employment, in addition to the supplementary teachers mentioned 
above, of large numbers of uncertificated teachers. 

(5) The determination of the government to demand that a 
portion of the teaching stafif of a secondary school shall in future 
be trained and the grant of a sum of money for the purpose 
marks a new era in secondary education. The present grant of 
£5,000 ($25,000) for this purpose is absurdly inadequate, but no 
doubt it will be rapidly increased in the near future. 

(6) Similar in character are the provisions the government 
has made for the training of teachers of domestic subjects, and 
of teachers for special schools for the blind, deaf and defective. 
A real effort to grapple with the trying social and educational 
problems is now being made. 

(7) The failure of the government to carry through its regu- 
lations of 1906, which precluded the imposition of any religious 
test whatsoever upon students desirous of entering a denomina- 
tional training college, indicates the immense power the churches 
wield over educational affairs in England. The government's 
demands have recently (1907) been reduced from 100 per cent 
to 50 per cent of free places. The latter figure has been accepted, 



Summary and Conclusion 149 

though originally great opposition was manifested to it by the 
religious bodies which control the several denominational train- 
ing colleges. The religious difficulty bids fair to die a natural 
death through the rapid rise of the undenominational day training 
college. Practically all the increase of facilities for training has 
been of the day training college type. The denominational in- 
stitutions have been practically stationary since 1890. 
"" (8) The state support of all forms of education is an excellent 
feature of English education. No parish is without its school, 
and no large area is without its government supported training 
college. The control exercised by the government over the vari- 
ous educational institutions by means of its system of inspection 
is adequate without being oppressive. The period of service re- 
quired of the teacher in return for the free training he receives 
is also a reasonable demand. 

L^g) The academic training which the prospective teacher receives 
in an English training college is decidedly superior to the profes- 
sional. The weakest part of the program of studies is the lack 
of attention to psychology and the history of education. Only 
three year students receive instruction in the history of educa- 
tion, while psychology is taught, for the most part, in a perfunc- 
tory and non-functioning manner. There is also a very real need 
of facilities for a further and more scientific study of education 
after the completion of a training college course, 
"^(lo) The practice teaching, which is only of six or eight weeks 
duration, is another weak point of the English system. There 
is perhaps a tendency to over-emphasize the acquisition of a 
mechanical and superficial ability at the expense of a more ra- 
tional comprehension of the fundamental principles of the teach- 
ing process. Formerly the preliminary practice teaching, which 
was obtained by the student during his pupil-teachership, dimin- 
ished the need for long periods of practice teaching in college. 
The introduction of the bursar system will necessitate the paying 
of much greater attention to this important branch of training. 
Fundamental changes in the course of study will have to be made 
in order to provide for the three months of practice teaching 
demanded by the Board of all students who enter the training 
colleges without previous practical experience. 



150 Trainiug of Teachers in England and Wales 

\ 1 1 ) The kingdom-wide validity of the teachers' certificate 
which terminates only at the pension age of sixty-fiye undoubt- 
edly contributes towards an excellent professional spirit among 
the teachers. This professional spirit is also fostered by the 
various teachers' associations \vhich play such an important part 
in the educational affairs of the country. 

(12) While the present system of training teachers is open to 
serious criticism from several points of view it cannot be denied 
that the possibilities of future development are encouraging in 
the highest degree for the future progress of English education. 



APPENDICES 

APPENDIX A 

English Course for Preliminary Education of Teachers, 1909 

The Board desire it to be clearly understood that the appended 
Scheme is given merely by way of illustration, and is not to be regarded 
as comprising more than a few specimens of the numerous texts which 
may advantageously be studied. 



Year of 
Course 



Texts : Poets 



English Ballads (early and 

modem). 
Macaulay's Lays (Roman and 

English). 
Ancient Mariner. 
Longfellow (shorter poems). 
Cowper (shorter poems). 
Patriotic songs and lyrics. 



Texts : Prose Authors 



Robinson Crusoe. 

Stories of Heroes (Greek, 
Roman, Scandinavian, Teu- 
tonic, Prankish, Arthurian). 

Tales from the Faerie Queen. 

Gatty — Parables from Nature. 



II. 



Longfellow (longer poems, e. g. 

Evangeline). 
Scott {e.g.. Lady of the Lake) 
Patriotic Poems {e.g., collec- 
tions such as Lyra Heroica.) 



Pilgrim's Progress. 

Selections from Don Quixote, 
Frois.sart, Malory or Gulli- 
ver's Travels. 

H. Kingsley — Tales of Old 
Travel. 

Prescott — Selections from Peru 
or Mexico. 

Scott {e. g., Tali.sman, Ivanhoe, 
Quentin Dur\N'-ard). 

Morris — Story of the Glittering 
Plain. 



III. 



Simpler poems from one or 
more of the following: — 
Milton, Gray, Wordsworth, 
Tennyson, Matthew Arnold; 
or from selections such as 
the Golden Treasury. 

Shakespeare (Julius Caesar, 
Merchant of Venice, As You 
Like It). 

Goldsmith (Traveller and De- 
serted Village). 

Morris (select stories from the 
Earthly Paradise). 



Macaulay — Biographical Es- 
says. 

Biographical Sketches of Great 
Characters {e.g., Charle- 
magne, Alfred, Sir T. More, 
Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh, 
Cromwell, Frederick the 
Great, Dr. Johnson, Wash- 
ington, Napoleon, Nelson. 

Voyages and Travels {e.g., 
selections from Hakluyt, 
Purchas, Dam pier, Anson, 
Cook). 

Scott {e.g., Waverley, The 
Antiquary, Old Mortality). 

151 



152 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

APPENDIX A—Coiitniiicd 



Year of 
Course 



IV. 



Texts: Poets 



More advanced poems taken 
from Chaucer (Prologue), 
Shakespeare, Milton, Spen- 
cer, Pope, Wordsworth, Ten- 
nyson; or from collections 
such as the Golden Treasury 
(First or Second Series). 

Shakespeare (Histories, Com- 
edies or easier Tragedies). 



Texts: Prose Authors 



Plutarch's Lives (Langhorne). 

Kinglake — Eothen. 

Borrow (e.g., Lavengro). 

Modern Prose Comedies (e. g., 
Goldsmith or Sheridan). 

Selections from British Essay- 
ists (e.g., Addison, Gold- 
smith, Lamb). 

Macaulay — E.ssays or selected 
chapters of the History. 

Froude — Selected Short Stud- 
ies. 

Ruskin (Sesame and Lilies). 



APPENDIX B 
Key to Diagram 

This diagram (see page 153) is intended to represent the various ways 
in which a person may proceed through the different stages of the teach- 
ing profession. 

The rectangles represent the status of the teacher at the various 
stages of his or her career; the dotted lines repre.sent the several means of 
progress of the teacher through these stages; the letters enclosed in 
circles represent the examinations which the teacher has to pass in 
this process. 

It will be observed that the lines leading from the rectangles repre- 
senting the early stages of the teaching career meet in an ellipse, from 
which other lines proceed leading to the rectangles representing the 
later stages. It is intended by this to represent the fact that teachers 
who have passed through these earlier stages by any one of the alterna- 
tive routes indicated by the dotted lines, may then proceed to the later 
stages either by entering a Training College, whether as an ordinary 
or a Degree Student, or by becom'ing Uncertificated Teachers. The 
Examinations to be passed in each of these three cases are .shown on the 
diagram by their appropriate letters. It should be observed that Bursars 
and Pupil-Teachers inay have passed one of these Examinations during 
their period of recognition as such, and that Student-Teachers will have 
done so, as a rule, previous to the beginning of their recognition. 

The minimum age at which intending teachers passing through a 
Secondary School Course and going direct to a Training College can pass 
each stage is shown on the left-hand side of the Diagram; for those 
passing through the Pupil-Teacher course it is shown on the right-hand 
side. 

The various Examinations are indicated in the Diagram by the follow- 
ing letters: 

(A)=One of the Examinations mentioned in Appendix I. a. 

(B)=One of the Examinations mentioned in Appendix I. b. 

(D)=One of the Examinations mentioned in Appendix I. d. 

(E)=An approved Final Examination, conducted wholly or partly by 
a University. 

(F)^The Board's Final Examination for Students in Training Colleges. 

(G)=The Board's Certificate Examination for Teachers in Elementary 
Schools. 



Appendices 



153 






drttj-i'CabtlcL Tidcktr 






r^y "^« 



"^ 



/; 



rrr 



StadtTit (,Ti Tra.i.ni-nQ.CoU 



(L-KCVlfSlN 



[Couth 



ILmctttLfL Cattd 



V — -_ 






li 



n 



lb 






a y 



3" 1- S a t tn 

I 
Sc f o Ti'a a > i/ 

S*ch I 

^ 



/ ' t' J 

IP iTturr len 

*n, Sfco ne/a ti 

School 



1, 



"Pub I i i^tt c^it 

LTistr uc ("I -n 

?ubi I '^mc'/iir Cfntti 



Oxiinart-j bubtt in 



I 



Fuhi.li I n 
Ctass 



If 



IS 



(^ 



1^ 



- «- - 



ScA o / a r irx 



/sSchoo I 



Diagram for Appendix B 



154 Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

APPENDIX C 
Form of Undertaking for Resident Students 

AN INDENTURE, made the day of 19 , 

BETWEEN the Board of Education (hereinafter called "the Board") 

of the first part, the (hereinafter called 

"the College Authority") of the second part, and the persons whose 
names and addresses are set out in the Schedule hereto (hereinafter 
called "the Students") each for himself {herself) of the third part: — 

Whereas, each of the Students is desirous of adopting and following 
the profession of Teacher in an Approved School; 

And Whereas, each of the Students has made application to the 

College authority for admission to the Training 

C-ollege (hereinafter called "the College") with a view to being there 
maintained, educated and trained for the profession of Teacher as a 
Resident Student ; 

And Whereas, fees are to-be charged by the College Authority to 
each of the Students in respect of maintenance, education and training, 
but those fees form but a small part of the cost which will be incurred 
by the College Authority in respect of the maintenance, education and 
training of any student; 

And Whereas, under the regulations for the training of Teachers for 
Elementary Schools (hereinafter called "the Regulations"), issued by 
the Board, Grants are payable annually in respect of the maintenance, 
education and training of every Student in a Training College who 
is recognized by the Board and who has on admission to that College 
given an undertaking to the Board for the purpose of securing that 
in return for the said Grants the Student shall complete his {her) training 
at that College and thereafter actually follow the profession of Teacher 
in an Approved School for such period or periods or repay to the Board 
such proportion of the said Grants as may respectively be specified in the 
undertaking; 

And Whereas, the College Authority are willing to admit each of 
the Students to the College and there to maintain, educate and train him 
{her) with a view to his {her) becoming a Certificated Teacher in accord- 
ance with the Regulations, provided that grants become payable 
to the College Authority as aforesaid in respect of his {her) maintenance, 
education and training; 

And Whereas, in order to make the said Grants become payable, 
and to secure his {her) admission as aforesaid, each of the Students 
has agreed to give the undertaking hereinafter contained : 

NOAV THIS INDENTURE WITNESSETH AS FOLLOWS:— 

I. Each of the Students, in consideration of the Grants in respect 
of his {her) maintenance, education and training, undertakes to the Board 
that he {she) will complete, in the College a course of training for the 
approved period (that is to say, the period for which he {she) is admitted 
or any other period which maj^ be substituted for that period in accord- 
ance with the Regulations), and will upon completion of the course of 
training folloAV the profession of Teacher in an Approved School and 
complete not less than seven {five) years' service in that profession within 
the period of obligation (that is to say, within ten {eight) years of the 
first day of August next after the completion of his {her) course of 
training), or make repayment as hereinafter specified. 

2. If a Student, before the completion of his {her) course of training 
leaves or is with the approval of the Board expelled from, the College, 
he {she) will repay to the Board an amount equal to the Grants paid 
b}' the Board in respect of the maintenance, education and training 
which he {she) receives up to the date which he {she) so leaves or is 
expelled. 



Appendices 155 

3. Each Student will, on every thirty-first day of Jitly, during the 
period of obligation, furnish to the Board such evidence as the Board 
may prescribe with respect to Ins (her) occupation during that period. 

4. If on the thirty-first day of July in any year within the period of 
obligation the periods in respect of which a Student has failed to show 
to the satisfaction of the Board that he (she) has served as a Teacher 
in an Approved School amount in the aggregate to more than three years, 
the Student shall on or before the thirty-first day of December then 
next following pay to the Board a proportion of the aggregate amount of 
the Grants paid by the Board in respect of his (her) maintenance, educa- 
tion and training, calculated in accordance with the provisions of this 
Indenture, in respect of the period of default (that is to say, the time 
by which the period during which he (she) has so failed exceeds three 
years). 

5. The sum to be so paid on or before any and every such thirty-first 
day of December shall bear the same proportion to the aggregate amount 
of the Grants so paid that the period of default bears to seven (five) 
years: 

Provided that : — 

(a) In calculating the amount of a second or subsequent payment, 
any amount previously paid by the Student shall be deducted from the 
amount to be paid by hint (her) : 

(b) In calculating the period of default for the purposes of this 
Indenture, an allowance shall be made to the Student on account 
of the time occupied in school holidays in respect of each twelve months 
commencing on each first day of August, equivalent, where the Student 
has been in continuous employment for that twelve months, to the 
time actually occupied in school holidays, and, where the Student 
has not been in such continuous employment, to such a time as the 
Board, having regard to the period ordinarily so occupied and to all 
the circumstances of the case, may think just; 

(c) If it is shown to the satisfaction of the Board that any such 
failure as aforesaid has been caused by illness, by inability (not due 
to the Student's own default) to find emplojrment at the current 
rate of salary payable to teachers of the same grade and sex, or by any 
other cause which, in the opinion of the Board, was not due to the 
default of the Student, the period during which the failure so caused 
continues shall not be taken into account in calculating the period 
of default. 

6. The College Authority undertake to admit each of the Students 
to the College and there during the approved period (exclusive of ordinary 
holidays or any period of suspension from attendance at the College) 
to maintain, educate and train him (her) with a view to his (her) becoming 
a Certificated Teacher, unless and until he (she) leaves or is with the 
approval of the Board expelled from the College. 

7. The Board recognize each of the Students for admission to the 
College, and will from time to time pay to the person or persons to whom 
Grants are payable under the Regulations in respect of the maintenance, 
education and training of the Students such sums as are payable in respect 
of each of the Students in accordance with the Regulations. 

8. Any breach by the Board or by the College Authority of any pro- 
vision of this indenture as respects any Student shall not operate to release 
any other Student from the obligations undertaken by him (her) under 
this Indenture. 

9. In this Indenture the expression "Approved School" includes 
any Public Elementary School, and anj' School certified under the 
Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, 1893, or under 
the Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act, 
1899, ^'^d any Poor Law School, Certified Industrial School, Day 



156 'riiiiiiiiii!, of 'rciuhcrs in Jini^laiul and Wales 

liiiluslriiil, or (.Vii.ilieil Koloniiiiloiy Srliool, in JCii^jlaiid (ir Wiik's, ;iiul 
any Army or Navy School, and any Secondary Scliool, l'ii|)il-'rcai:hor 
Ci'iilrc, or 'PrainiiiH; Coll(.'j,'i>, in n-spoct ol" wliit-li (iranis arc [)aid l)y tlie 
i^o.ird (Mil of nionoys provided by l*arIiaiu<Mil , and any oilier School 
wiiicii ill I he case ol any vStndenl. liie iioani appidvc in wrilinj,' Tor the 
pnrposes of Lliis Indenture. 

In Witness VViih:uict)K the Hoard and llie ('ollci;e .\utliorily have here- 
unto set (heir respective seals and liie ])arties hereto ol I he Ihird i)art 
have hereunto set their rcsj)ective hands and seals tlu- day and yi-ar 
first aliove written. 

ScMunui.ic Aiiovic Kicki':kki;i> To 
Tint St u I) 1: NTS 

(Niiiiifs and Aiiilri'sscs) 

Sij^ned, sealed and delivered liy the] 

I)ersons whose names are .sel oiii in I ,,.. , >.■,,■ c- 1 v 

I he Schedule herd., in the pn-;encc [ (•^'.•^'""/'"'•^ <""/ >'''/-^ ") >>l"dc,ils.) 



Sealed by Onler of Ihc Hoar.l oFI ,.. , r „ .^ 
IJdueat^n. \ {Seal oj Board.) 

1/ CoUcj^c Authority.) 



Sealed with the Coniinon Seal of the] 

, . [ {Seal o 



in the presence of j 



Appendices 



157 



APPENDIX D 

Annuity Tables 
Tables showing the Amount of Annuity, payable quarterly, from 
the attainment of the Age of 65 Years, in return for a Contribution 
m.ade by or on behalf of a Teacher of the Age undermentioned. 

Men 



Age at which a Contribution is 
treated as having been paid 



Amount of Annuity lor a Con- 
tribution of £2 5s od 



20 and not exceeding 21 . 

21 " " 22. 

22 " " 23. 

23 " " 24. 

24 " " 25. 

25 " " 26. 

26 " " 27. 

27 " " 28. 

28 " " 29. 

29 " " 30- 

30 " " 31- 

31 " " 32- 

32 33- 

33 " " 34- 

34 35- 

35 ' ' 36. 

36 " " 37- 

37 " " 38. 

38 " " 39- 

39 " " 40. 

40 " " 41. 

41 " " 42. 

42 " " 43- 

43 " " 44- 

44 " " 45- 

45 " " 46. 

46 " " 47- 

47 " " 48. 

48 " " 49. 

49 " " 50 ■ 

50 " " 51- 

51 " " 52. 

52 " " 53- 

53 " " 54- 

54 " " 55- 

55 " " 56. 

56 " " 57- 

57 " " 58. 

58 " " 59- 

59 " " 60. 

60 " " 61 . 

61 " " 62. 

62 " " 63 . 

63 " " 64. 

64 " " 65. 



£ 



s. 

13 



10 

9 



19 

18 
18 

17 
16 
16 
15 
^5 
14 
13 
13 



1 1 
10 
10 
9 
9 
9 
8 
8 
7 
7 
7 
6 
6 
6 



d . 



9 

9 

10 . 



6. 
1 1 . 

5- 
10 . 

4- 

10 . 

I . 

10 . 

5- 

1 1 . 
6. 



3' 

10 . 

6. 

2 . 

9 

5. 



Dollars 
. 8.1S 

• 7 96 

• 771 
49 
27 

OS 

82 

62 

42 

21 

6.01 

5-81 

5 63 

5-45 

5.26 

518 

4.92 

4-74 

457 

4.41 

4-25 
4. II 
396 
3.80 
3.66 
352 
338 
3.26 
3.12 
3 00 
2.87 

2-75 
2.63 

2-53 
2 .41 
2.31 
2.21 
2 . 10 
2 .00 
1 . 90 
I .82 

1-74 
I .64 
1.56 
I .48 



158 



Training of Teacliers in England and Wales 



Womoi 



Age at which a Contribution is 
ti-eated as having been paid 



Amount of Annuity for a Con- 
tribution of £2 8s od 



20 and not exceeding 21 



21 ' 


" 22 


22 


23 


23 


24 


24 


25 


25 


26 


26 


27 


27 


28 


28 


29 


29 


30 


30 


31 


31 


32 


32 


id, 


32. 


34 


34 


35 


35 


36 


36 


37 


37 


38 


38 


39 


39 


40 


40 


41 


41 


42 


42 


43 


43 


44 


44 


45 


45 


46 


46 


47 


47 


48 


48 


49 


49 


50 


50 


51 


51 


52 


52 


53 


53 


54 


54 


55 


55 


56 


56 


57 


57 


58 


58 


59 


59 


60 


60 


61 


61 


62 


62 


63 


63 


64 


64 


65 



s. 

15 
15 
14 
14 
14 
13 
13 
13 

12 

12 



II 
10 
10 
10 
10 

9 
9 
9 

S 
8 
8 



10 . 



10 . 

1- 



Dollars 
. 3-82 
• 372 

,62 
52 

.42 

•34 
.24 
.16 
,06 
.98 
.89 
.8i 
•73 
•65 
■57 
•49 
•43 
■35 
•29 
. 21 

■ 14 
.oS 
.02 
.94 
.88 

■ 84 
.78 
.72 
.66 
.60 
•56 
•50 
.46 

•39 
•35 
•29 

•25 
.19 

■15 
. 1 1 
.05 
.01 
•97 
■93 
.87 



Note — The amount of Annuity due is found by adding the amounts 
in the second column corresponding to the years of contribution. Thus 
a man or woman who paid from the age of 20 to the age of 65 would 
receive an annuity equal to the sum of all the amounts in the respective 
columns. In transmuting English to American money, one pound 
has been taken as equivalent to $4.86. In all other parts of the book 
a pound has been taken as equivalent to $5.00. 



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Allen, W. O. B. and McClure, Edmund. The History of the Society 
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159 



i6o : Training of Teachers in England and Wales 

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INDEX 



Academic training of teacher, 149 
Act, Board of Education, 5, 6, 14, 17, 
18 

Education, 1870, 22, 23, 53, 139 

Education, 1902, 21, 22, 23, 24, 
25. 47. 95. 107; 122, 135, 144 

Teachers' Superannuation, 131 
Activities of teachers' associations, 

120-130 
Administrative county, 20, 21 
Administration of Education, 1-28 
Admiralty Board, i, 15, 17 
Agricultural education, 16 
Alternative courses of Board, 80-84 
America, abuses in certification in, 

145 

American education, statistics of, 144 

American v English training systems, 
46 

American influence on England, 146 

Annuity tables, 157-158 

Annuity, teachers', 131, 132, 133 

Apprenticeship system of training, 
56, 147 

Appointment and dismissal of teach- 
ers, 108, 109 

Army schools, 17 

Arnold, Matthew, 33, 46 

Art Class Teacher's Certificate, 99 

Art Master's Certificate,. 99, 100 

Assembly, General, of the Church of 
Scotland, 41 

Associations, activities of teachers', 
120-130, 150 
List of teachers', 137, 138 
Teachers and teachers' register, 
136-138 

Athletics, college, 90, 91 

Attendance in England, Germany 
and America compared, 140 

Attendance, school, 26, 27, 140 



Authority, local education, 20-28 

Bamett, P. A., 11. 
Basedow, 33 

Battersea Training College, 47, 48, 49 
Bell, Dr. Andrew, 33, 34, 35, 36 
Bibliography, 130, 159-164 
Board of Agriculture, i, 5, 15, 16 
Board, Central Welsh, 5, 134 
Board of Education, 1-14, 57, 60, 61, 
62, 63, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 80, 
84, 85, 88, 89, 94, 97, 98, 100, 
103, 105, 108, 109, 115, 121, 
132, 141, 143. 148, 149 
Central office work, 7-9 ; con- 
sultative committee, 14; his- 
tory of, 2-6; official publica- 
tions, 7-9; organization, 6; 
president, 2, 92; special in- 
quiries and reports, 13, 14; 
statistics, 8, 111-113, 139-147; 
suggestions, 8; syllabuses, 80- 
84. 
Board of Examinations for Educa- 
tional Handwork, 100-102 
Bray, Dr., 32 
Brinsley, John, 31, 34 
British and Foreign School Society, 

36, 42, 49. 52, 92, 119 
Brougham, Henry, 40 
Bryce, James, 4 
Bryce Royal Commission, 4, 95 
Buchanan, James, 40 
Budget for education, 143 
Bureaus, teachers' appointm.ent, 126; 

teachers' information, 125, 126 
Bursar, 57, 58, 60, 61, 141, 147, 149 

Centralization in England, 145 
Certificated assistant teachers, 106- 
107 



i66 



Index 



Certification, of students, 88, 89; of 
teachers, 51, 150 

Charity commissioners, 5, 13, 15, 17 

Charity schools, 32, 33 

Circular 563, 132 

Code, Lowe's, 9, 45. 53. 55. 131 

Coghan, Rev. Mr., 9 

College, admission requirements, 
70-72; athletics, 90, 91; com- 
mon rooms, 89, 90; religious 
difficulties, 91-93 ; societies, 91 ; 
statistics, 141; teaching stafi^, 
74, 75; time table, 84, 91; 
texts, 83, 84 

College entrance, form of undertak- 
ing, 72; health certificate, 72 

College of Physical Education, 102 

College, Training; for blind, 93; 
classes of students, 75-78; 
definition of, 65; governing 
body, 65. 66 

Colleges, classification of, 66; day 
training, 53, 54, 66; domestic 
arrangements, 90; English v 
American, 83 ; list of early, 52 ; 
residential, 66; for teachers of 
domestic subjects, 97-99 

Colleges, Training; course of study, 
78-84; distribution of, 66; for 
elementary teachers, 65-93 '< 
for teachers other than ele- 
mentary, 94-103 

Comenius, J. A., 31, 34 

Commission, Cross, 1888, 45, 46, 53 
Newcastle, 44, 45 
Royal, on secondary education, 

4, 95 
Schools Inquiry, 53 
Committee of Council, 3, 9, 18, 40, 

42, 43. 91 
Consolidated fund, 142, 143 
Consultative Committee, 5, 6, 14, 139 
Cooperative Holidays Association, 

115 
Coote, Edmund, 31 
Council, Teachers' Registration, 135, 

138 
Covmty borough, 20, 21 



Course of study, training colleges, 78- 

84 
Courses for teachers, summer and 

sessional, 11 6-1 19 
Criticism lessons, 84, 86 

Demonstration schools, 84, 85-88, 

148 
Dewey, John, 146 
Diagram of teacher training, 153 
Diocesan boards, 49, 52 
Diplomas for doinestic subjects, 98, 

99; for secondary teachers, 96 
Disablement allowances, teachers', 

131. 133. 134 
Distinction in studies, 88 
Dymond, T. S., 9, 17 

Economicbetterment of teachers, 123 
Education Committee, 22, 23 
Educational handwork, teachers', 

100-102 
Educational and professional activ- 
ities of teachers, 123, 124 
Elem_entary scholars, number of, 139 
Eleinentary schools, number of, 139 
Educational Settlement Committee, 

92, 93 

English V American training systems, 
144-147 

English course, preliminary educa- 
tion of teachers, 151, 152 

Faculty, training college, 74, 75 
Federal council of teachers, 136 
Fielden Demonstration School, 86-88 
Finances, history of educational, 143, 

144 
Form of undertaking for students, 

154, 156 
Francke, A. H., 33 
Freedom in English colleges, 147 
Froebel Union, National, 100 

Germany, training of teachers in, 33 
Gibson, John, 49 

Girls' public day school trust, 53 
Glasgow normal seminary, report, 
49. 50 



Index 



167 



Grants for colleges and hostels, 69, 
70; for education, 42, 143; 
for preliminary .education of 
teachers, 61-63; for teachers 
in training, 50 

Hall, G. Stanley, 146 
Heath, H. F., 14 
Headmasters' conference, 120 
Headteacher, qualifications of, 105, 

106 
Hecker, ^t, 
Holland, pupil-teacher system in, 43, 

48 
Home Office, 1,15 
Hoole, Charles, 31 
Hostels, 67, 68, 69 

Infant school system, 40, 41 
Inspection, 7, 9-13, 42, 88, 89 
Inspectorial divisions, 10-12 
Ireland, Board of Commissioners of 
National Education, 18,19,40 
Department of Agriculture and 

Technical Instruction, 19, 20 
Intermediate Education Board, 

18, 19, 20 
Training of teachers, 37-40 

Kildare Place Society, 37-40, 41 
Kindergarten teachers, 100 
Kneller Hall, 16 

Lancaster, Joseph, 34, 35, 36, 39 

Lancasterian Society, 36, 37 

Legal aid, advice and protection of 

teachers, 122, 123 
Local authorities, 20-28 
Local govemmxcnt board, 1,15 
Lowe, Robert, 4 
Lyly, John, 30 

Managers, 23-25 

Manchester, scheme for students, 77 

Manchester, University of, 86 

Mann^ Horace, 146 

Minutes, Corry's, 45 

Minutes of 1846, 44, 50, 51 131 

Monitorial system, 34-40, 42 

Morant, Sir Robert, 7, 136 



Mulcaster's scheme for a training 

college, 29, 30 
Municipal borough, 20, 21 

National Educational Association, 

112, 122, 124, 130 
National Home Reading Union, 115, 

116 
National Society, 37, 42, 48, 52, 92, 

119 
National Union of Teachers, no, 120, 

122, 123, 124, 125, 128-130 
Navy schools, 1 7 

Organs, official, of teachers' asso- 
ciations, 126-128 
Organizations, educational, 1 19-130 
Owen, Robert, 40 

Pensions, for teachers, 131-135,147; 
for secondary teachers, 134, 

135 
Pestalozzi, 33, 38 
Physical education, teachers of, 102, 

103 
Pitt, William, 142 
Political and legislative activities of 

teachers, 121, 122 
Poor Law Schools, 15, 16 
Practice teaching, 82, 84-88, 149 
Preliminary certificate examination, 

60, 107 
Principles of teaching, syllabus, 81 , 82 
Principal, training college, 74 
Provisional assistant teacher, 108 
Publications by teachers' associa- 
tions, 126-130 
Pupil-teacher, 57, 58, 59, 60,61, 147, 
148; V Bursar, 63-64; centres, 
45, 46, 59-61; curriiukm for, 
60, 61; definition of, 43; sys- 
tem, 43-47. 56-58. 60, 61, 63, 
141 

Quick, R. H., 124 

Rates, increasing educational, 144 
Reading circles, 115, 116 
Reformatory schools, 15 
Register, teachers', 135-138 



i68 



Index 



Regulations, government, for second- 
ary teachers, 96, 97 
Rein, W., 146 

Religious difficulty, 146, 148, 149 
Religious teaching in colleges, 91-93 

Sadler, Michael E., 13 

Salaries, comparative, 114 

Salaries of teachers, 109-114 

Salisbury, Dr., 73 

Salzman, 33 

Scale of salaries of N. U. T., no 

Scales, typical salary, in 

Scheme, ideal, for practice teaching, 

Scheme for teachers' register, 136-138 
Schienmeyer, ^7, 
Scholarships, Queen's, 44, 50 
Schools, types of elementary, 104 
Science and art department, 3, 4, S 
Scotch education department, 18 
Scotland, training of teachers, 40, 41 
Secondary schools, statistics of, 141, 

142 
Secondary teachers, 135-138, 148; 

early attempts at training, 94, 

95; pensions for, 134, 135; 

training of, 147 
Sessional courses for teachers, 118, 

119 
Sheldon, Dr., 146 
Shuttleworth, Sir, Jas. Kay, 33, 42, 

43. 47. 48 
Social activities of teachers, 126 
Society, British and Foreign School, 

36, 42, 49, 52, 92, 119; Cheap 
Book, 39; Child Study, 120; 
College, 91; Glasgow Educa- 
tional, 40 ; Home and Colonial, 
47, 52; National, I, 37, 42, 48, 
52,92, 119; of Physical Educa- 
tion and Gymnastic Teachers' 
Institute, 103; for Promoting 
Christian Knowledge, 9, 31, 32, 

37, 48; Royal Lancasterian, 

36, 37 
Stanley, Hon. E. G., 40 
Statistics, pension, 134 



Stow, David, 40 
Student-life in colleges, 89-91 
Student-teacher, 57, 58, 59, 147 
Students, bearding and lodging of, 
67; certificated, 75, 76; cer- 
tification of, 88, 89; cost to, 
78; one-year, 75, 76; social 
status of, 72-74; three-3'ear, 
75, 76-78; two-year, 75-76 
Summer courses for teachers, 1 16-1 18 
Superannuation allowance, teachers', 

131. ^33 
Supervision of tec cbiers, 27, 114 
Supplementary teachers, 107, 108, 148 
Syllabuses of board, 80-84 

Table of salaries, 111-114 

Teacher as a civil servant, 131-138 

Teacher in service, 104-130 

Teachers, of Art, 99, 100; classes cf, 
104-108; of domestic subjects, 
97-99; of educational hand- 
work, 100-102; elementary 
types and sex, 140; history of 
training of, 29-55; number of 
trained, 1 40-1 41; of physical 
education, 102, 103; preliinin- 
ary education of, 56-64; quali- 
fications of secondary, 142 

Teachers' associations, 11 9-1 30; asso- 
ciations and register, 136-138; 
Guild, 124, 126, 127; pensions, 
131-135; register, 135-138; 
salaries, 109-114. 

Tenure of teachers, 125 

Texts for colleges, 83, 84 

Training colleges, statistics cf, 141 

Training facilities for women, 53 

Triinmer, Sarah, 36 

Uncertificated teachers, 107, 148 
Urban district, 20, 21 

Veevers, John, 37, 38, 39 
Vehrli, 48 

War Office, i, 15, 17 
Wilderspin, Samuel, 40, 41 

Yoxall, Sir James, 123 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



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